Myers’ Psychology for
® AP ,
2e
David G. Myers PowerPoint Presentation Slides by Kent Korek Germantown High School Worth Publishers, © 2014 AP® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board ®, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.
Unit 7: Cognition
Unit 07 - Overview • Studying and Building Memories • Memory Storage and Retrieval • Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory Improvement • Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity • Solving Problems and Making Decisions • Thinking and Language Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.
Module 31: Studying and Building Memories
Studying Memory
Studying Memory • Memory • Extremes of memory
Studying Memory
Memory Models • • • •
Encoding Storage Retrieval Parallel processing
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Atkinson and Shiffrin Theory –Sensory memory –Short-term memory –Long-term memory
• Modified version of the threestage processing model of memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory • Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory –Working memory
Studying Memory Memory Models:
Working Memory
Building Memories: Encoding
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Versus Automatic Processing • Explicit memory (declarative memory) • Effortful processing • Automatic processing • Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Automatic Processing and Implicit Memories • Automatic Processing • Space • Time • Frequency
Building Memories: Encoding
Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories • Effortful processing • Sensory Memory • Iconic memory • Echoic memory
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Capacity of Short-Term and Working Memory • Magic number Seven –Plus or minus 2
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Chunking
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Mnemonics –Visual imagery –Peg word system –ROY G BIV –Acronym HOMES
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Effortful Processing Strategies • Hierarchies
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Distributed Practice • Overlearning • Spacing effect –Massed practice –Distributed practice
• Testing effect
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Levels of Processing • Shallow processing • Deep processing
Building Memories: Encoding Dual-Track Memory: Effortful Processing and Explicit Memories:
Making Material Personally Meaningful • Making material meaningful • Self-reference effect
Module 32: Memory Storage and Retrieval
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Retaining Information in the Brain • Memories are NOT stored in one part of the brain.
Memory Storage Retaining Information in the Brain:
Explicit-Memory System: The Frontal Lobes and Hippocampus • Hippocampus –Amnesia –Damage to either hemisphere –Consolidation during sleep
Memory Storage Retaining Information in the Brain:
Implicit-Memory System: The Cerebellum and Basal Ganglia • Cerebellum • Basal Ganglia • Infantile amnesia
Memory Storage
The Amygdala, Emotions, and Memory • Amygdala • Flashbulb Memories
Memory Storage
Synaptic Changes • Aplysia • Long-term potentiation • Mild neurocognitive disorders
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Memory Storage
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Measuring Retention • Recall • Recognition • Relearning
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Priming • Priming
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Priming • Priming
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Priming • Priming
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory • Context effects
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Context-Dependent Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
State-Dependent Memory • State dependent memory • Mood congruent memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out Retrieval Cues:
Serial Position Effect • Serial position effect –Recency effect –Primacy effect
Module 33: Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory Improvement
Forgetting
Forgetting
Forgetting and the Two-Track Mind • Anterograde amnesia • Retrograde amnesia
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Forgetting
Storage Decay • Storage decay –Ebbinghaus curve
Forgetting
Storage Decay
Forgetting
Storage Decay
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Forgetting Retrieval Failure:
Interference
• Proactive interference (forward acting) • Retroactive interference (backwardacting)
Forgetting Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting • Self-serving personal histories • Repression
Forgetting Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting • Self-serving personal histories • Repression
Forgetting Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting • Self-serving personal histories • Repression
Forgetting Retrieval Failure:
Motivated Forgetting • Self-serving personal histories • Repression
Memory Construction Errors
Memory Construction Errors
Misinformation and Imagination Effects • Loftus memory studies –Misinformation effect
Memory Construction Errors
Source Amnesia • Source amnesia (source misattribution) • Déjà vu – “already seen”
Memory Construction Errors
Discerning True and False Memories • Memory studies • Children eyewitness recall
Memory Construction Errors
Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse? • Areas of agreement – Sexual abuse happens – Injustice happens – Forgetting happens – Recovered memories are incomplete – Memories before 3 years are unreliable – Hypnotic memories are unreliable – Memories can be emotionally upsetting
Improving Memory
Improving Memory • • • • • • •
Rehearse repeatedly Make the material meaningful Activate retrieval cues Use mnemonic devices Minimize interference Sleep more Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know
Module 34: Thinking, Cognition, and Creativity
Thinking and Concepts
Thinking and Concepts • Cognition (thinking) • Concepts • Prototypes
Creativity
Creativity • Creativity • Convergent thinking • Divergent thinking
Creativity • Sternberg’s five components of creativity –Expertise –Imaginative thinking skills –A venturesome personality –Intrinsic motivation –A creative environment
Creativity • Ways to boost creativity –Develop your expertise –Allow time for incubation –Set aside time for the mind to roam freely –Experience other cultures and ways of thinking
Module 35: Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles • Algorithms –Step-by-step
• Heuristic • Insight • Confirmation bias • Mental set
Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles
Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments • Intuition –Automatic unreasoned feelings and thoughts –Seat of their pants
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Representativeness Heuristic • The Representative Heuristic –Prototype –Likelihood of something
• Truck Driver versus a professor of classics at an Ivy League school.
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Availability Heuristic • The Availability Heuristic
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
Overconfidence • Overconfidence
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
Belief Perseverance and Framing • Belief perseverance –Consider the opposite
• Framing
Forming Good and Bad Decisions and Judgments
The Perils and Powers of Intuition • Intuition –Intuition is huge –Intuition is usually adaptive –Intuition is recognition born of experience
Module 36: Thinking and Language
Introduction • Language
Language Structure
Language Structure • Phoneme –English about 40 phonemes –Learning another language’s phonemes
• Morpheme –Includes prefixes and suffixes
Language Structure • Grammar –Semantics –Syntax
Language Development
Language Development • Receptive language • Productive language –Babbling stage –One-word stage –Two-word stage –Telegraphic speech
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Language Development
Explaining Language Development • Chomsky: Inborn Universal Grammar –Language acquisition device –Universal grammar
Language Development
Explaining Language Development • Statistical Learning and Critical Periods –Statistical learning –Critical (sensitive) period
The Brain and Language
The Brain and Language • Aphasia • Broca’s Area • Wernicke’s Area
Language and Thought
Language and Thought
Language Influences Thinking • Whorf’s linguistic determinism • Bilingual advantage
Language and Thought
Language Influences Thinking
The End
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Teacher Information
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Psychology’s History and Approaches Research Methods Biological Bases of Behavior Sensation and Perception States of Consciousness Learning Cognition Motivation, Emotion, and Stress Developmental Psychology Personality Testing and Individual Differences Abnormal Psychology Treatment of Abnormal Behavior Social Psychology
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Definition Slides
Memory = the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage and retrieval of information.
Encoding = the processing of information into the memory systems – for example, by extracting meaning.
Storage = the process of retaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval = the process of getting information out of memory storage.
Parallel Processing = the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s natural mode of information processing for many functions. Contrasts with the stepby-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
Sensory Memory = the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-Term Memory = activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten.
Long-Term Memory = the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Working Memory = a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Explicit Memory = memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory)
Effortful Processing = encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Automatic Processing = unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.
Implicit Memory = retention independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory)
Iconic Memory = a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.
Echoic Memory = a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.
Chunking = organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.
Mnemonics = memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Spacing Effect = the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Testing Effect = enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also sometimes referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.
Shallow Processing = encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
Deep Processing = encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
Hippocampus = a neural center that is located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage.
Flashbulb Memory = a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) = an increase in a cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.
Recall = a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learning earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.
Recognition = a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.
Relearning = a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.
Priming = the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.
Mood Congruent Memory = the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood.
Serial Position Effect = our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first items (a primacy effect) in a list.
Anterograde Amnesia = an inability to form new memories.
Retrograde Amnesia = an inability to retrieve information from one’s past.
Proactive Interference = the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference = the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
Repression = in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.
Misinformation Effect = incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event.
Source Amnesia = attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.
Deja Vu = that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience.
Cognition = the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
Concept = a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Prototype = a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a robin).
Creativity = the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Convergent Thinking = narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.
Divergent Thinking = expands the number of possible problem solutions (creativity thinking that diverges in different directions).
Algorithm = a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier – but also more error-prone – use of heuristics.
Heuristic = a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.
Insight = a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions.
Confirmation Bias = a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence.
Mental Set = a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past.
Intuition = an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning.
Representativeness Heuristic = judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information.
Availability Heuristic = estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common
Overconfidence = the tendency to be more confident than correct – to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
Belief Perseverance = clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they are formed has been discredited.
Framing = the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements.
Language = our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.
Phoneme = in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.
Morpheme = in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix).
Grammar = in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds, and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.
Babbling Stage = beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language.
One-Word Stage = the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.
Two-Word Stage = beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements.
Telegraphic Speech = early speech state in which a child speaks like a telegram – “go car” – using mostly nouns and verbs.
Aphasia = impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca’s area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke’s area (impairing understanding).
Broca’s Area = controls language expression – an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.
Wenicke’s Area = controls language reception – a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe.
Linguistic Determinism = Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way we think.
