Germany 1918-1939 - Carlingford High School

GERMANY 1918 - 1939

Principal focus 

Students investigate the key features and issues of the history of Germany 1918 - 1939       

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Successes and failures of democracy Nature and role of nationalism Influence of the German army Nature and influence of racism Changes in society The nature and impact of Nazism Aims and impact of Nazi foreign policy

Content divided into the study of:    

Weimar Republic The rise of the Nazi Party Nazism in power Nazi foreign policy

Role of German history – legacy of the past  

Germany only a nation state since 1871 United by Prussian military power and by exclusion of Austria 

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(KleinDeutsch vs. GrossDeutsch)

Rapid industrialisation before 1914 Sense of frustrated nationalism Racism and antisemitism Imperial Germany dominated by narrow elite

The birth of the Weimar Republic   

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German High Command realised it could not win WWI by late 1918 Urged a civilian government be put in place to seek an armistice 1/10/18 Prince Max von Baden becomes chancellor – Social Democrats included in Cabinet 28/10/18 Kiel naval base mutiny – revolution spreads to other towns throughout Germany 9/11/18 Kaiser abdicates, Friedrich Ebert (SPD) becomes chancellor; Germany becomes a republic 11/11/18 Armistice signed, WWI ended 1/19 Republican government formed in Weimar: Scheidemann became chancellor, Ebert became president

Early Weimar: Revolution and counter-revolution 

Groener-Ebert Pact   

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Stinnes-Legien Pact 

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Industrial compromise: Recognition of bargaining rights of trade unions and 8 hour workday VS. industrial peace and no workers’ councils

Spartacist (German communist) uprising  

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Ebert: Enforcing the authority of the government Continuance of Prussian militaristic tradition Delmer: “The Republic was born with a hole in its heart”

K. Liebknecht and R. Luxemburg: Call for a Russian-style Soviet republic Revolt crushed by the Freikorps (irregular volunteer soldiers)– political violence a feature of the early republic

Kapp Putsch   

Gustav Kapp: Attempted overthrow of Government (assisted by Freikorps) Regular army did not assist the Government Lack of authority of Weimar Government

Versailles Treaty: Terms and effects  

Drawn up by victorious powers of WWI It required the Germans to:  

   

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Surrender various territories Demilitarise the Rhineland (occupied by Allied powers) Reduce the army to 100 000; Navy to 6 battleships (disperse air force and submarines) Hand over all overseas territories to the Allies Make reparations of 6 billion gold marks per year (as well as other items) Accept full responsibility (‘war guilt’ clause) for causing the war

Effects:  

Germans stunned by the harshness of the Versailles Treaty Looking for someone to blame: 

Hindenburg and the officer class argued that the army was not defeated in the field, hence responsibility must lie elsewhere (Ebert welcomed the troops in November with the greeting “As you return unconquered from the field of battle, I salute you”. )

Versailles Treaty: Terms and effects (cont.) 

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Assertion spread (and legend arose) that it was the fault of the ‘November criminals’ – Socialist politicians who negotiated and signed the Armistice in November 1918 ‘Stab in the back’ theory: A belief in a conspiracy of communists and Jews Democracy seen by many Germans as an imposition

Only in this way could Germany’s helpless position in June 1919 be explained for many Germans

Germany after WWI

The Weimar Constitution 

Provided for:    

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Election of a Reichstag Elections based on proportional representation Election of President every seven years President to chose from the Reichstag a Chancellor

Very forward-looking:   

Sought to safeguard the fundamental rights of citizens Provisions for the most advanced social-welfare system in the world (designed to cope with an unemployment rate of approx. 800 000) Compulsory state arbitration of disputes between employers and unions

Weaknesses of the Weimar Constitution 

Proportional representation 

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Z. Brzenzinsky: Proportional representation led to small parties and single issue parties so that it became difficult to create and maintain coalition governments (Totalitarian Dictatorship and Democracy – 1950s, supported by K. Bracher in the 1960s) E. Kolb: More recently Kolb and other historians have pointed out that other European countries, including the history of post war West Germany, have had proportional representation without the rise of extremist parties to power (The Weimar Republic)

Presidential powers and Article 48 

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E. Kolb: The powers of the President meant that he could appoint governments which did not have majority support in the Reichstag. Article 48 an inbuilt authoritarian element (The Weimar Republic) J. L. Radel: France had similar provisions to Article 48 used during emergencies but constitutional power had always been returned. In Germany this article was invoked 130 times between 1919 and 1924 to safeguard the republic from left and right. The article was not the problem, it was the way it was misused. (Roots of Totalitarianism)

Political and socio-economic issues to 1929  

French occupation of the Ruhr and German resistance (passive) Hyperinflation of 1923  

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Stresemann era 1924-29: a period of prosperity?    

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Loaf of bread 1918- 0.63 marks; late 1923-201 000 000 000 marks Rate of exchange changing several times a day

Dawes Plan (repayments based on capacity to pay) Young Plan (annual repayments to conclude in 1988) Locarno treaties ( a triumph of cooperation between ministers for foreign affairs from Germany, France and Britain) Admittance to the League of Nations

Cultural innovation 

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Berlin: Literature, music, theatre and art Sexuality entered a permissive phase Nudity and open homosexuality Experimental design in architecture

Political and socio-economic issues to 1929 (cont) 

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One view is that at the end of 1918 the SPD was justified in attacking the left and making an alliance with the conservative elites. K. D. Erdmann suggests that the demands of the left would have destroyed the new democracy Revisionist historians have suggested that the SPD distrusted popular mass movements and showed naivety for their reverence for conservative loyalty The economic and social repercussions of hyperinflation are still subject to intense debate 

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Usefulness of inflation and hyperinflation as a means of currency stabilisation in Germany and serious weakness of the economy to 1929 which made it difficult for the German government to deal with the savage impact of the Great Depression

Kolb has suggested that the economic and social instability during this period undermined the political stability since the economy functioned entirely upon foreign loans (economic, social and political fragility) Close correlation between art and politics: Gay has described this period of German culture as one filled with clashes between modernism and anti-modernism, between reason and irrationalism – Broad sections of a basically conservative population associated modernism with decadence and blamed Weimar for its introduction Curbing of the workers’ movement: Industrial disputation increased

Impact of the Great Depression on Germany 

Its onset crippled the economy:  

Foreign loans dried up Industries closed 

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Unemployment soared 

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Iron and steel employers in the Ruhr refused to pay recent wage increases and locked out their workforce. Big business had given a clear notice of its intention to undermine the arbitration system. From 2 000 000 in 1929 to more than 6 000 000 in 1932

Collapse of the unemployment insurance system Dramatic decline in exports Dramatic decline in living standards, especially for middle class Young Plan made invalid Economic instability mirrored in the political scene

Collapse of the Weimar Republic 1929 - 1933  

Muller’s coalition government the last to be able to call on the backing of a majority in the Reichstag Hindenburg and the use of the emergency decree 

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Appointed successive Chancellors: Bruning, von Papen, Schleicher

Appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor   

Hitler leading the largest party in the Reichstag Papen’s ambition and revenge: Removing Schleicher Hindenburg’s blunder: opposition and acceptance

Collapse of the Weimar Republic 1929 – 1933 (cont) 

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Controversy thus surrounds the reasons for the collapse of the republic, whether it was destined for failure at its inception or whether the Depression and the emergence of Nazism destroyed its credibility A. Bullock: The role of the personality of Hitler as a spokesperson for discontented groups in Germany over structural weakness in the Weimar republic Nicholls: Weimar had weak foundations but Hitler was spokesperson for key discontented groups in Germany A. J. P. Taylor: The economic crisis led to the rise of the Nazis F. Fischer: Basic continuities in socio-economic structures from Wilhelmine Germany into the Weimar republic (emphasises the superficial nature of Weimar democracy and structure rather than the Depression or the role of individuals as cause of collapse) K. D. Bracher: Weimar built on weak democratic base I. Kershaw, E. Kolb, M. Broszat: These historians stress the weakness of the Weimar government, socio-economic dislocation and continuing power of conservative elites Liberal and left wing scholars have accused the army of weakening the democratic system and developing a dualistic state where power descended from a constitutional and additionally a military base

Collapse of the Weimar Republic 1929 – 1933 (cont) 

Kolb suggests that the political aims and ambitions of the Reichswehr chiefs...were factors of the first rank in the disruption of the Weimar republic

Collapse of the Weimar Republic 1929 – 1933 (cont)

http://www.herodote.net/Images/HitlerHindenburg.jpg

The rise of the Nazi Party

http://www.ns-party.com/gauleitung.jpg

The rise of the Nazi Party 

Hitler and the German Workers’ party  

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National Socialist German Workers’ Party 

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Attended meeting in Bavaria in 9/1919 in the role of Army investigator Saw it as a vehicle for his own ambitions (joined as member number 7)

Hitler renamed the party

Twenty-five Point Programme 

Designed to attract a wide variety of support, calling for:   

  

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Strong leadership from a central government Abolition of the Treaty of Versailles Unification of all Germans in a greater Germany Anti-capitalist measures: land reform, profit sharing etc Welfare provisions: pensions for the aged Anti-Semitic views: No Jew could be a member of the German nation

Sturm Abteilung (SA)

The Munich Putsch 

Attempt to seize power in Munich on 8/11/1923   

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A rift existed between the right-wing Bavarian government of von Kahr and Weimar authorities. Hitler tried to exploit this Supported in his efforts by General Ludendorff Putsch failed

Hitler on trial 

Charged with high treason 

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Hitler: “There is no such thing as high treason against the traitors of 1918”

Drew sympathy from judges in courtroom Sentenced to five years (served nine months in Landsberg prison)

Mein Kampf  

Whilst in prison, he wrote Mein Kampf (‘My Struggle’) Set out his views on Germany’s future    

Racial theories War and struggle Fuhrerprinzip Lebensraum

“If outvoting them takes longer than outshooting them, at least the results will be guaranteed by their own constitution” Hitler  

Reversing the ban on the party and Volkischer Beobachter Reunifying the party – Congress of Bamberg 

 

Hitler’s authority over the whole movement was reimposed

Joseph Goebbels appointed Gauleiter (district supervisor) in Berlin July 1926 Little electoral success 1924 – 1929 

Developing party structures and rituals    

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Swastika ‘Heil Hitler’ Creation of students’, women's’ and teachers’ Leagues Schutzstaffeln (SS)

Party membership in 1926: 49 000

The Great Depression and the Nazi message    

Racially-based nationalist ideology Coordinated social-welfare effort designed to project a caring image Claim to be a vigorous young movement Proved effective – number of votes rose significantly

Nazi power increases    

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Nazi Party won 107 seats in the September 1930 elections (second only to the Social Democrats) March 1932: Hitler stood for presidential election (Lost to Hindenburg) Nazi party won 230 seats in July 1932 elections – Largest single party in the Reichstag Election of November 1932: Nazi vote fell by 2 000 000, though still largest single party in Reichstag

Hitler as Chancellor  

von Papen persuades Hindenburg to accept coalition with Hitler as Chancellor To be surrounded by experienced conservatives (von Papen and Hugenberg)

R. Stackelberg, The Nazi Germany Sourcebook, p. 23

Consolidation of Nazi power 1933-34

B. Dennett, Key Features of Modern History, p. 270

Consolidation of Nazi power 1933-34 (cont) 

Establishment of Dachau concentration camp 

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1/4/1933 – Boycott Day: Jewish businesses targeted The burning of the Reichstag  

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Suspended civil liberties and gave the government wide ranging powers

The Enabling Act 

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Marinus van der Lubbe and the Communists Were the Nazis involved?

Burning of ‘un-German’ books: Left-wing, pacifist and Jewish works Establishment of the Gehaime Staatspolizei (Gestapo) Decree for the Protection of the German People 

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‘Enemies of the state’

Replacing parliamentary democracy with the rule of Hitler and the Nazi Party

Outlawing political opposition 

Nazi governors replaced elected state parliaments

Consolidation of Nazi power 1933-34 (cont) 

Night of the Long Knives   

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Ernst Rohm and the power of the SA – threatening the Reichswehr Hitler authorised Heinrich Himmler (leader of SS) to purge the most radical elements of the SA Hitler wanted and needed the cooperation of the Reichswehr

Death of Hindenburg 

Hitler takes over his office and becomes the Fuehrer of the German Reich and People

Nazism in power

http://www.nazi-lauck-nsdapao.com/adolf-5-75dpi.jpg

The role of Hitler  

An area of intense historical debate Differing interpretations: 

Intentionalist historians: 

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A. Bullock and H. T. Roper: Hitler was a strong leader. Until the 1970s historians view Hitler as master planner creating a chaotic state structure to increase his own power (Roper, Hitler’s War Directives; Bullock, Hitler: A Study in Tyranny) K. Bracher: Hitler establishes rival agencies to make himself omnipotent. These historians see Hitler directing the Third Reich towards implementing the race war for the purpose of lebensraum for the German people

Structuralist historians: 

M. Broszat, T. Mason, M. Geyer, I. Kershaw: Hitler was in many ways less powerful than he appeared to be and was forced to react to forces that he could not control. He was a victim of the ‘Hitler myth’ he had helped to create. The structuralists have concentrated on analysing the internal and interconnected structures of the regime instead of describing its outward form

‘Master of the Third Reich’... 

Hitler seen as the vital, powerful, central ingredient to the Nazi system of government   

Hitler delegated authority to his most powerful potentates Giving power though encouraging them to compete for power and influence whilst keeping the power to interfere and make final decisions for himself Hitler very rarely consulted cabinet before taking a decision, which was an indication of his desire to keep power in his own hands 

4 cabinet meetings held in 1936; last meeting held on 5/2/1938

...or ‘Weak Dictator’? 

Hitler not seen as a strong, decisive leader    

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Hitler’s role was as a figurehead and a unifying force for the party and the nation As a leader, he was easily swayed, moody, erratic and not in direct control of the affairs of state The power of those around Hitler in the Nazi party are emphasised This analysis explains why Nazis move from uncoordinated attacks on Jews to legislation of persecution, Kristallnacht, encouragement of emigration in 193839 to the ‘final solution’. It was a spiralling radicalisation of anti-Semitic policies that led to the ‘final solution’ rather than the result of carefully planned long term goal as the intentionalists claim

The role of Hitler (cont)   

Evidence exists to support both these views – reflects the real historical complexity of Nazism Consensus: Germany’s government under Hitler was chaotic M. Broszat: Structure was polycratic (had different rulers) 

 

Day-to-day power and administrative control rested with Himmler, Goering, Goebbels and others. They, in turn, stood at the top of their own smaller autocratic pyramids

Competition and rivalry existed at this level as functions overlapped, causing confusion, competition and friction But, was it a deliberate ‘divide and rule’ policy?  

K.D. Bracher suggests that it was (Hitler’s way of ensuring that no one person gained too much power) Kershaw and Broszat disagree

Nazism as Totalitarianism?   

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Historians have debated this question Based on C. Friedrich’s comparison between Nazi Germany and Stalin’s Russia in the 1950s A totalitarian image of Nazism sees it as monolithic and well organised, which is the way they sought to portray themselves to the world, instead of the chaotic jungle of competing institutions, spinning of on radical programmes, held together by a system of terror and increasingly fantastic ‘Fuhrer myth’ I. Kershaw: The definition of totalitarianism requires an isolated and passive population unable to respond 

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Structuralists criticise the totalitarian view as looking only at the outward form instead of internal structure and function. There was a broad based consensus among Germans in support of the Nazi state. It was not a terrorised and passive population although there was institutional use of terror

Hitler detested administration and bureaucracy. There was little order in the power and authority structure of the state

Hitler: Myth and charismatic leadership 

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The term was used by Goebbels to describe the ‘heroic’ leader image of Hitler. Goebbels’ Hitler was seen as the architect of Germany’s recovery and personally incorruptible – yet a man of the people Hitler embodied an extensive (though not all-encompassing) ideological consensus:  

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Anti Marxism – Hitler admired for opposition to Bolshevism ending the power of the moderate socialists The national interest – Hitler creates a socially harmonious national community. The myth grew that he was unaware of the misdeeds of party members Employment – Seen as personally responsible for fall in unemployment. However, workers were less impressed as wages fell and hours increased Moderate – Hitler was believed to oppose the radicals in the party e.g. attempts to remove crucifixes from classrooms. Many saw him as ‘god fearing’ Ruthless against enemies of the people – Anti-Semitic but not in favour of gutter violence. Many approved removal of Jews from everyday spheres of life Foreign policy – Hitler was seen as an upholder of the nation’s rights Military genius – The defeat of France in just four weeks

Hitler: Myth and charismatic leadership (cont)  

Kershaw suggests that Hitler’s charismatic authority was heroic and required repeated success to provide proof of exceptional powers The charismatic style of leadership led to: 

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Nazi leaders ignoring the conservative elites The ‘wild men’ of the party becoming responsible for increasingly extreme policies Hitler becomes increasingly unable or unwilling to separate himself from the myth, detached from reality and cut off from criticism

The Hitler myth was essential to the existence of the Nazi state

Propaganda, terror and repression: SS and SA    

Hitler: Propaganda a way to gain and keep the support of the masses Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda Reich Chamber of Culture Themes addressed by Nazi propaganda:     

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Need for racial purity Fear and hatred of Jews and communism Fuhrerprinzip National Community (Volksgemeinschaft) Achievements of the Reich

Messages and slogans kept as simple as possible Propaganda administered through:  

Newspapers Cinema  

The Eternal Jew Triumph of the Will

www.hermes-press.com/ nazification_step3.htm

Propaganda, terror and repression: SS and SA (cont) 

Radio 

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Festivals and celebrations 

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Nuremberg rallies

Art and architecture 

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‘The People’s Receiver’

‘Realism’ and the monumental style

Berlin Olympics

www.nspropaganda.org.wentworth/edu.html

Propaganda, terror and repression: SS and SA (cont) 

Structured oppression:      

Heinrich Himler and the SS (‘State within a State’ – responsible only to Hitler) Totenkopfuerbande (concentration camp administration) Eisatzgruppen (resettlement and extermination) Waffen SS Gestapo Sicherheitsdienst (SS intelligence agency) 

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Werner Best (Chief of the SD) “It is correct to say that in the National Socialist Fuhrer State, the institutions called upon to protect the state possess an authority which is derived solely from the new conception of the State and one which requires no special legal legitimisation”.

German concentration camps  

Dachau, Mauthausen, Flossenburg, Buchenwald, Sachsenhausen, Ravensbruk (Women’s camp) Imprisoned included communists, socialists, political opponents, trade unionists, religious dissenters, people who spoke out against the regime etc

Opposition to Nazism 

Opposition to Nazism scattered throughout Germany during this period. Includes:   

Eilbeck Comrades Rote Kapelle (Communist spy network – uncovered 1942) Youth groups like:  

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Individuals Church (Roman Catholic and Protestant) 

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The White Rose (Munich University) Eidelweiss Pirates (working class gangs opposing HJ)

Especially against Hitler’s T4 euthanasia program

Army Gestapo records show that they seized 1 643 000 anti-Nazi leaflets in 1936

Opposition failed largely because:    

German people’s traditional conservatism and loyalty to authority Lack of organisation and small size of opposition groups Lack of interest and support from Britain and the USA Role of the SS

Opposition to Nazism (cont) 

Support for the Nazi regime has been an area of increasing controversy as historians argue over the reasons for the continuation of support and growth of opposition to Nazism on the home front

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Traditionalist historians such as D. Peukert and M. Broszat have suggested that opposition to the regime could be dealt with only in terms of the assassination attempts and the various levels of dissident behaviour across the Reich

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Recent historiography however, has questioned the very definition of the term opposition, expanding it to incorporate a far-reaching scale of reactionary behaviour. Everything ranging from everyday defiance, such as the abandonment of the Hitler salute all the way to undermining the very structure of the regime by attempting to assassinate Hitler

Opposition to Nazism (cont) 

A turning point for the growth of opposition and the continuation of support was the Nazi defeat at Stalingrad where the Wehrmacht met its first series of losses. The worsening war effort promoted an atmosphere of pessimism and in turn promoted the growth of structuralist historiography that underlined the importance of the worsening war effort to the overall growth of opposition and continuation of support for the regime. These structuralists, such as R. Bessel, continue to outline the main groups that opposed the regime, from everyday Germans, to Jews, to the conservative elite, to the army and again to the working class

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Conversely, historians have tended to agree upon the reasons for continuation of support for the regime. The use of propaganda, suppression of the rebellious segments of society and the structure of regime – these have been identified as contributing factors in persistence of support for the regime

the the the the

Social and cultural life in the Nazi state 

Gleichaltung and Volksgemeinschaft   

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DAF (German Labour Front) 

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Abolishing trade unions and spreading Nazi propaganda

Schonheit der Arbeit (beauty of labour) and Kraft durch Freude (strength through joy) 

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Coordinating all aspects of German socio-economic life to Nazi ideals Creating a ‘racially’ pure German national community, free from class divisions and social conflict – putting the national interest above self interest ‘Blut und Boden’ – Blood and Soil (glorifying the peasant farmer)

Improving working conditions and rewarding loyal workers

Women and Nazism 

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‘Kinder, Kuche, Kirche’  Central theme of Nazi policy towards women

Pro-natalism 

The Mutterkreuz (Mother Cross)   

4 children = bronze 6 children = silver 8 children = gold

http://www.ns-party.com/gauleitung.jpg

Social and cultural life in the Nazi state (cont)  

Marriage loans Jungmadelbund and the BDM (League of German Girls) 

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Women in the workforce and the birth rate: Corresponding to Nazi ideology and policy?   

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Educating German girls of their reproductive duties to Germany

Between 1933 – 1939 women in the workforce increased from 11.6 million to 14.6 million Birth rate increased from 18.0 per 1000 in 1934 to 20.3 per 1000 in 1939 Divorce rate rose during this period

Hitler youth 

Hitler: “Whoever has the youth has the future” 

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Political and social indoctrination of the youth: pushing the philosophy and ideology of the national socialist ‘revolution’

Hitler Jugend  

Voluntary to compulsory membership (90% of youth belonged by 1937) Emphasis placed on physical activities, developing courage and endurance

Social and cultural life in the Nazi state (cont) 

Religion   

Catholic Church: From Concordat to growing tensions Organised religion: Ministry of Church Affairs (later replaced by the SS) Protestant Churches: Division leading to an imposition of Hitler’s will  

Creating a Reich Bishop for an all-embracing German Christian Church Discontent and breakaway: Pastor Martin Niemoller (The Church to be independent from the state)

R. Stackelberg, The Nazi Germany Sourcebook, p. 24

Social and cultural life in the Nazi state (cont)

www.stargods.org/ Nazis_and_the_Occult.html

Nazi racial policy  

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Hitler: “The cultivation of racial purity is the real end and purpose of the state” Mein Kampf Hitler: “What soon gave me cause for alarm were the Jews at work. Was there any shady undertaking, any form of foulness, especially in cultural life, in which at least one Jew did not take part?” Mein Kampf Sterilisation of the ‘unfit’ Anti-Semitism a central consistent theme of Nazism  

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Nuremberg Laws, 1935  

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Laws passed between 1933 and 1935 removed Jews from the civil service, education, health and legal systems Boycotts of Jewish business’ occurring from April 1933 Citizenship Law Laws for the Protection of German Blood and Honour

Aryanisation of economic life 

Government placing limits on Jewish economic and cultural activities

Nazi racial policy (cont)  

Propaganda and the Jews Kristallnacht  

 

Goebbels and anti-Semitic propaganda Jews fined for the destruction in Kristallnacht

Exclusion of Jewish pupils from schools Hitler: “Any future war will lead to the destruction of the Jewish race in Europe”

R. Stackelberg, The Nazi Germany Sourcebook, p. 21

Nazi racial policy (cont) 

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Historians have argued whether the Nazi final solution was a planned, systematic progression or whether it descended from the gradual/radical spiralisation of the regime Structuralist historians argue that the structure of the Nazi hierarchy and the worsening conditions at home resulted in the Wannsee conference and the formulation of the final solution Other intentionalist historians suggest that the Nazis had a plan for the elimination of the ‘problem’ of the European Jewry. The structuralists M. Broszat and H. Mommsen argue that the Nazi genocide resulted from the gradual radicalisation of the regime D. Goldhagen (Hitler’s Willing Executioners) argues that without the widespread indifference, acceptance and even popular support, the Holocaust would not have been possible The main area of debate in this field has been between the intentionalists and the structuralists over the origins of WWII. Some historians have suggested that Hitler was an aggressive dictator who pursued a policy of aggression from the start of the regime. Others have questioned this suggesting that Hitler was an opportunist who adapted to changing conditions at home and abroad

Nazi foreign policy   

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The significance of the Versailles Treaty Reintroduction of conscription and repudiation of disarmament clause of the Versailles Treaty Ten year Non-Aggression Pact with Poland 1934 The Saar 

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Remilitarisation of the Rhineland 7/3/1936 Civil war in Spain Rome-Berlin Axis The Hossbach conference Anschluss with Austria Sudetenland crisis and the Munich conference 

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Voted to rejoin Germany-seen as a vote of confidence in Hitler’s new Germany

Franco-British appeasement: Giving in to Hitler’s ‘reasonable’ demands

Nazi-Soviet non-aggression pact

Nazi foreign policy (cont) 

Did Hitler have a program of conquest? 

   

K.D. Bracher: The world view outlined in Mein Kampf shaped the choices Hitler made when he finally achieved power in Germany, especially in the spheres of race and foreign policy

Was it merely the expansion of German borders without any long-term objective? Did Hitler want world domination or merely the conquest of Lebensraum in the East? Did his foreign policy follow from his ‘unshakeable will’? Hitler to Carl Burckhardt, Swiss Commissioner to the League of Nations: “Everything that I undertake is directed against Russia. If those in the West are too stupid and too blind to understand this, then I shall be forced to come to an understanding with the Russians to beat the West and then, after its defeat, turn all my concerted force against the Soviet Union”

Nazi foreign policy (cont) 

R. Overy: Hitler planned for a total war, though well after 1939, and when war broke out Germany mobilised as fast as it could. Things went wrong when economic planning got out of phase with foreign policy:    

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Hitler’s speeches about a long drawn out conflict Economic planning which was all long term Hitler’s plan for a war in the mid-1940s or later Sheer size of rearmament in the late 1930s was much bigger than was needed for Blitzkrieg. War coming in 1939 threw the long term plans into confusion showing up unsolved structural problems in the Nazi economy

Achieving as much as possible through diplomatic means whilst vigorously pursuing policies of rearmament

Nazi foreign policy (cont) 

Historians differ in their attempts to explain Hitler’s foreign policy Intentionalists

Structuralists

Hitler had detailed and long term plans for war: Lebensraum in Mein Kampf As soon as he came to power he prepared for war At the Hossbach conference Hitler announced his plans to invade Austria and Czechoslovakia Clear evidence of long-term goals, economic and military preparations and specific plans for war

Hitler had no specific plans, took advantage of opportunities as they arose: Nazi foreign policy similar to that of past German governments. Hopes and aims were not the same as deliberate plans Hitler was a nationalist. A strong army and economy doesn’t mean he planned to risk it all in war Hossbach notes are not reliable. The meeting was typical of many Hitler had to ‘test’ ideas Nations develop war plans: it does not prove that they intend to use them There is no clear evidence of a deliberate plan for war. Hitler took risks, he threatened and bluffed. These risks led to the war

Nazi foreign policy (cont)