Historical Research
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OTHER TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ACTION RESEARCH HISTORICAL RESEARCH THE CASE STUDY APPROACH Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Action Research “A model
for enacting local, actionoriented approaches of investigating” (Berg) A research framework used to… Produce
useful knowledge through research, education, and sociopolitical action Enlighten and empower the average person in a group Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Origins of Action Research Kurt Lewin first used the term “action research” in 1946 to describe “research leading to social action” that uses “a spiral of steps, each of which is composed of a circle of planning, action, and fact-finding about the result of the action” Criticized as having an intrinsically political nature. “Participation is empowerment and empowerment is politics” (Berger)
Participatory Action Research in the Community Increasing use of action research methods to perform community based research (CBR) Rationale:
Perceived
academic-community disconnect Criticism of overly narrowly defined research by academia Perceived need for students to develop civic capacity and democratic citizenship
Community Based Research (CBR) Can have a local, regional, national or global focus Using action research in communities is a way of combining academic knowledge with praxis with the goal of social and economic justice for all
Praxis From the Greek praxis (refers to work performed by free men) Aristotle: three types of activity and related knowledge in life:
theoria
(the theoretical pursuit of truth) poiesis (with the goal of making things and production) praxis (with the end goal of action)
Karl Marx and Praxis In Communist Manifesto (Marx, 1848), noted need for working class (proletariat) to overcome false consciousness to develop class consciousness and move from being “class-in-itself” to become “class-for-itself” Achieved through praxis = knowledge and research should inform one’s action (Marx, Theses on Feuerbach 1845)
Action Research in the Community
Has become popular method for teaching community members (esp. in low income areas) to explore, challenge, and react to own needs Paulo Freire advocated community controlled social change in Brazil. Freire (1990) wrote, "The
silenced are not just incidental to the curiosity of the researcher but are the masters of inquiry into the underlying causes of the events in their world. In this context research becomes a means of moving them beyond silence into a quest to proclaim the world.”
Orlando Fals-Borda organized PAR conferences for researchers in Colombia to teach them how to collaborate with and empower members of peasant groups in creating their own forms of social change.
CBR Principles
Research should: 1.
be a collaborative enterprise 2. validate multiple sources of knowledge and employ mixed methods 3. have the goals of social action and social change in order to achieve social justice
The Research Process Identify
the research questions Gather the information to answer the questions Analyze and interpret the information Share the results with the participants In participatory-action research and CBR, the participants are active collaborators Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
Berg’s Basics Looking Gathering
information, identifying stakeholders
Thinking Making
interpretations, analyzing collected data
Action Application
of results to improve lives of stakeholders
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Guiding Questions of Analysis Why? Establishes
a general focus for the investigator and stakeholders
What Help
Who,
and How? to establish the problem issues
Where, and When?
Specific
actors, events, and activities Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2009
The Action Researcher’s Role Holistic Collaboration
with local practitioners Collaboration with local stakeholders
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Berg’s Types of Action Research Technical/Scientific/Collaborative Testing
interventions based on a theoretical framework Researcher collaborates with practitioner Practitioner facilitates implementation
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Types (cont.) Practical/Mutual
Collaborative/Deliberate Researcher
and practitioner collaboration
Mutual
identification of problems, causes, and interventions
Empowering
and emancipating
stakeholders Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Types (cont.) Emancipating
or Empowering/Enhancing/Critical Science Apply
theory and book knowledge to the real world Raise collective consciousness of practitioners Promote change Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Photovoice Subjects
themselves photograph certain aspects of their lives Can
empower and enable reflection Encourages dialogue and knowledge transfer Allows sharing of perceptions of those not in control with those in control Can be key to giving members of disenfranchised groups a voice Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Methods of Photovoice Selecting
Photographs
Which
photographs most accurately reflect the issues?
Contextualizing Offer
Stories
accounts about photographs
Codifying Identify
central issues, themes or theories Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Photovoice Projects Photovoice.ca Women’s
Journey Urban-Rural Process Nya:Weh: Our Stories Our Way
Historical Research To
understand the historical nature of phenomena, events, people, agencies and institutions
Historiography systematic
reconstruction of the past Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Value of Historical Research
It throws light on present and future trends. It enables understanding of and solutions to contemporary problems to be sought in the past. It can illuminate the effects of key interactions within a culture or sub-culture. It allows for the revaluation of data in relation to selected hypotheses, theories and generalizations that are presently held about the past and the present.
Data Sources Primary
Sources
oral
or written testimony of eyewitnesses Documents, photographs, recordings, diaries
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Data Sources Secondary
Sources
oral
or written testimony of people not immediately present Oral histories Newspaper stories, textbooks
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Data Sources Tertiary
Sources
presentation
or collection of primary or secondary sources Almanacs, biographies, encyclopedias
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Steps in Historical Research Identify
an idea Conduct a literature review Refine the research questions Select historiography Identify primary and secondary sources Confirm authenticity and accuracy Analyze the data Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Evaluating Primary Sources External
Criticism--Authenticity
Who
wrote the source? What was the intended audience? Historical context? Internal
Criticism-Accuracy
What
does it mean? Why was it written? Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Oral History To
collect real-life experiences and stories from individuals about their pasts Gives narrative access to real-life experiences and memories Uses depth or intensive interviewing Necessitates good interviewing skill Oral history interviewing is valuable for history, anthropology, and folklore.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Oral History (cont.) Gathers
data not available in written records about events, people, decisions, and processes. Can show how individual values and actions shaped the past, and how the past shapes present-day values and actions. Methodological problem: Grounded
in memory, and memory is a subjective instrument for recording the past, always shaped by the present moment and the individual psyche.
Why Collect Oral Histories?
Listen to Alice Nixon Cooper (104 years old) and her recollections of the American south and “the Jim Crow days”
Case Study Approach Provides a “holistic description and explanation” (Berg) Research skills needed: Inquiring mind Ability to listen Adaptability and flexibility Understanding of the issues Unbiased interpretation of data
Types of Case Studies Intrinsic—better
understanding of a
particular case Instrumental—focus on single issue or concern Collective—extensive study of several instrumental cases
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
The design can be… Exploratory
as a prelude to a large social scientific study Explanatory as in causal studies Descriptive to establish an overall description and framework
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The Organizational Case Study Systematic
information gathering Can use grounded theory approach Insight into the life of the organization Relationships,
behaviors, attitudes, motivations, stressors
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Community Case Study Geographically
delineated unit of
larger society Provides awareness of community occurrences Why
and how things occur
Interest
groups Social Classes Can use participatory action research Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2010
Case Study Example
A Case Study of Organizational Stress in Elite Sport (Woodman and Hardy, 2001) Case
study performed in Wales of 15 elite athletes using standardized interviews This study uses content analysis and grounded theory to analyze data
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