HITLER and the Nazis

Rise and Rule of Single Party State in Germany 1918 – 1945: HITLER and the Nazis Paper 2 Review Everything you could ever want to know about Hitler for Paper 2, and then some!

Hitler Historical Issues  How and Why were the Nazi’s able to gain power?  Why was it possible to create and maintain a regime of such brutality?  What exactly is Nazism and what does it represent  Intentionalist School  Hitler Factor? The great man, albeit an evil one in this case, influences History through his actions  Holds to a Hitler centered interpretation of the 3rd Reich  Problem is it conveniently shifts all blame to the dead Hitler

 Structuralist School  Hitler’s role is over-stated  Focus on the apparatus of the Party and the State  Decisions are complex

 Fascist/Totalitarian Analysis (Political Scientist focus)  Germany is example of common mid-2oth Century political movement

Hitler Historical Issues  Fascist/Totalitarian Analysis con’t (Political Scientist focus)  Left-wing political analysis  Generic view of Fascism  Brought about by economic forces, and class issues in capitalist states  Nazism scene as a mere variety of Fascism  Roots are not Germanic or Hitlerian  Liberal Interpretation  Prefer a totalitarian analysis  Look for similarities of left and right  Compare Mussolini, Franco, Stalin (can’t be studied in isolation)  Problem  Confirmation bias, force Nazi’s into pre-determined model  Ignore particular circumstances in Germany  Racial/Foreign Policy Interpretation  Unique racial focus of Nazi’s used to justify expansion and brutality  Mass murder requires analysis and questions the nature of man

Hitler Historical Issues 

The Question of the Third Reich as Revolutionary  Is it an abhorrent revolution that alters Germany’s path?  Is it a natural culmination of German development since the 1850’s?  Kaisereich is authoritatarian  Kaiser appoints Chancellor, controls army and foreign policy  William II unsuited to rule  Industrial revolution upsets class structure (Mittlestand and workers)  Army props up Monarchy  Weimar a product of defeat and democratic parties blamed for it  Preserve traditional interests but implements democracy  Stable Period 1924-29 is a façade  Hinderburg (President) is anti-democratic  Article 48 allows semi dictatorship  Is the Third Reich based on continuity of military state structure of 1871 or a break with the Past???

Germany Preconditions  Germany as a single, unified state was created in 1871  Prussia had been its largest state  Power was wielded by the Kaiser (emperor)  There was an elected Parliament (Reichstag), but the country was authoritarian  Kaiser appoints PM, Bundesrat (Prus. Has 17 of 58 B-rat votes) approves all laws  Germany underwent rapid industrialization in the late 1800s (even surpassing GB)  Germany had Europe’s largest and best army  Kaiser Wilhelm II (1888-1918) pursued an aggressive foreign policy  Food and fuel crisis 1916-17, Inflation 100%, Spanish Flu

Germany Preconditions cont  WWI  Germany was certainly partially to blame for the militarism, alliance system, imperialism and other causes of WWI  Germany thought WWI would be short by using Schlieffen Plan to defeat France and Russia  But WWI became a war of attrition on all sides  By Sept 1918, German military commanders Ludendorf and Hindenburg realize they cant win after Spring 1918 offensive  accepted that Germany could not escape defeat  Try to shift blame for defeat to new gov’t

 Germany’s citizens were unable to accept the defeat and turned on the government  Von Baden (Liberal) new Chancellor tries to preserve monarchy  Military control to Reichstag, Chancellor reports to R-stag  Strikes, riots (King Louis deposed in Bavaria, 6 Soviets set up in Berlin etc…), and mutinies (Navy rejects suicide mission) broke out  Angry over wasted sacrifices

Germany Preconditions cont  Kaiser Wilhelm II was forced to abdicate on Nov 9, 1918  Germany was declared a republic, and led by center-left (SPD) Coalition:  Pres.: Friedrich Ebert, Scheidemann Chancellor (Fear extreme left)  Problem is left is Split: SPD wants Socialist Parlimentary Democracy, USPD want Soviets with Parliament, Sparticists want Soviets only  Germany signed a ceasefire to end WWI  Provisional Gov’t until elections  Ebert-Groener gets Army support for Gov’t and to maintain order  Stinnes-Legien Agreement- Unions promise not to attack private property and get legalization, 8-hour day, workers committees

 Germany held elections in January 1919  The main political parties that supported democracy (Social Democratic Party (SPD), Democratic Party (DDP), Centre Party (ZP) ) received over 76% votes

Germany Preconditions cont  Weimar Government opened in February – not in Berlin because of the chaos and riots there  The assembly voted in July 1919 to accept the new constitution (Weimar Constitution)  President 7-years  Can dissolve R-Stag, appoints chancellor (doesn’t have to be largest party), commands army, Article 48 rule by decree in emergency  Reichstag 4 years, proportional representation, Reichsrat upper house only initiate or delay legislation  Supreme Court

 Scheidemann, from the Social Democratic Party (SPD), was the Chancellor

Germany Preconditions cont  Extremist right and left wing movements opposed democracy and were committed to overthrowing the new Republic  Civil Service, Courts, Army unreformed and right-wing  DNVP (Nationalists), and DVP (Const. Monarchy under Stresemann) get 15% of votes  Key Problems

 Proportional Representation  Splinter parties, no majorities, instability but what alternative

 President v. Reichstag: Article 48 overcompensates for fear of R-Stag tyranny?  G Craig argues the Article 48 Anomaly lets Hitler rise (however it does work well in 1923)

 Civil institutions anti-democratic  Even universities are rightist

 Is the constitution bad or is it the political environment???? Fatally Flawed????

Germany Preconditions cont  Weimar government faced serious problems from the beginning:  Anger and resentment over the Versailles Treaty  Diktat, Weimar Gov’t blamed for Treaty “Stab in the Back” Theory  Germans assumed fair peace, true terms shocking

 Loss of territory, no Self Determination  War Guilt Article 231  Reparations 6,600 million pounds (Ger. Ultimately chooses to monetize debt)  Saar to Lof N, Rheinland demilitarized  Restricted military, no Anschluss  Germany banned from Lof N  Revisionist view : Of course allies protect empires    

USSR threat, multiple states involved not just Germany Clemenceau gives up extreme demands Many lost areas are ethnically mixed, Austria, Sudeten Land never Ger. Much less punitive than Brest-Litovsk

Germany Preconditions cont  Was Versailles that big a deal?  Economic problems of Weimar not purely from Versailles  Dawes and Young Plans gives Germany more loans than the amount of reparations they pay

 Germany not destroyed like A/H, Russian or Ottoman Empires  Does create power vacuum Germany can exploit in Central Europe  Public opinion does blame Versailles however  Creates Stab in the back myth  Wartime nationalism expands  Weimar blamed for WWI results even though olg Gov’t started the war

Germany Preconditions cont  Political Problems of Weimar  Threats from the LEFT:  Background:  Extreme left-wing socialist movement known as the Sparticists set up the German Communist Party (KPD)  KPD wanted a Bolshevik-style government  KPD contested many elections in the 1920s and consistently received 10-15% of the vote  The KPD and the SPD would not work together (except in the case of the German October, 1923) and made it easier for Hitler to come to power in 1933

Germany Background cont  The Sparticist Uprising – January 1919  Staged in Berlin by the Sparticists (left wing Socialists)  Occupy public buildings, 100 killed  Leaders Rosa Luxembourg and Liebknecht murdered in Police custody  Put down by the freikorps (extreme right-wing ex-soldiers)  March 1919 Bavaria declared Soviet Republic crushed by Freikorps

 Communist Uprising in the Ruhr – March 1920    

Set up their own gov’t at Essen and in April briefly took over Munich German army intervened and killed hundreds of communists 50,000 Workers Army (Crushed by Army and Freikorps) March 1921 Merseburg/Holle KPD strikes crushed by Police

 “German October” – 1923  The German Communist Party (KPD) organized strikes and demonstrations, and joined with the Social Democratic Party (SPD) to win control of local governments  Berlin used the army to arrest KPD ministers and dissolve the disturbances

Germany Background cont  Threats from the RIGHT:  Background:  Anti-Marxist, Anti-Democratic, Nationalist  Stab in the Back, November Criminals (pacifists, Socialists, democrats, Jews part of Weimar conspiracy)  Many German nationalists never accepted the Weimar Republic because it had accepted the Treaty of Versailles  Many conservative elites (large landowners, big industrialists, senior army officers, judges and civil servants) only sort of, kind of supported the new gov’t – often they were actually hostile  Many wanted restoration of the monarchy or some authoritarian alternative

Germany Background cont  Threats from the RIGHT:  Background:  Organizations  DNVP- German Nat’l Proples Party  Old conservatives, racists, extremists

 Volkisch Nationalism  70 splinter parties DAP later NSDAP (NAZI) is one

 Freikorps  Consul Organization  Right wing assassins (of 376 Weimar political murders 354 are committed by the right)

Germany Background cont  The Kapp Putsch – March 1920  Wolfgang Kapp and General von Luttwitz attempted to overthrow the gov’t  Thousands of unemployed soldiers joined the Freikorps units to seize control of Berlin  Regular army (Reichswehr) was ordered to attack the former soldiers, but they refused  “Troops don’t shoot at troops”  Trade unions in Berlin went on strike paralyzing the city  After 4 days, Kapp realized he could not succeed and he fled the country  Not really a Weimar success  Army is unreliable “state within a state”  Kapp dies before trial, only 1 0f 705 found guilty

Germany Background cont  The “White Terror’ – 1920-22  Many political murders and high level assassinations  Freikorps was mainly responsible  Erzeberger (ZP) and Rathenau (ZP) killed  Only 24 of 354 right wing assassins found guilty no death penalties  10 of 22 left wing assassins guilty all executed

 The Beerhall Putsch – November 8, 1923  Hitler and his SA took over a govt meeting in Bavaria  The local leader (Kahr) escaped and warned the police and army  Nov 9 the Nazis marched on Munich, but the army was ready and arrested many Nazis  Hitler was tried, convicted and sentenced to 5 years, but only spent 9 months in jail – used trial as a bully pulpit and won over many new supporters  In jail he wrote Mein Kampf and decided to work from within the system rather than against it

Germany Background cont  Outcome of Political Instability of Weimar    

Success v. left and right disguises weaknesses 1920 Elections Democratic vote (SPD, DDP, ZP) drops to 48% from 76% DNVP up to 15% KPD up to 20% from 7%

What was wrong with the Weimar Constitution?  Background:  All men and women over 20 could vote  Reichstag had great power  Ministers were accountable to Reichstag rather than the President

 Weaknesses:  Voting system was proportional representation  Small parties could get seats in govt – factionalism slows govt – no party could get a majority  1919-23 saw 8 different coalition governments  Very instable

What was wrong with the Weimar Constitution?

 Weaknesses cont:

 Article 48 of Constitution gave President extensive emergency powers  Could suspend civil liberties in emergencies  Hindenburg used this frequently to bypass the stalemates in the Reichstag 1930-32  Hindenburg also used it in 1933 after the Reichstag Fire:  Hitler was then able to arrest many communist and socialist opponents and close down their newspapers  This was an important step toward his creation of a single party state

Economic Problems 1919-23  High unemployment and low industrial output  WWI soldiers couldn’t find work  Destruction from WWI

 Germany lost valuable resources from TofV  Poland and France both received mineral rich land from Germany for 15 years  Exports collapse as other countries rebuild

 Inflation was serious since start of WWI     

War bonds debt massive as short war had been anticipated Debt 5 bi. 1915, 144bi. 1919 84% of war borrowed Erzeberger decides on deficit spending Maintain demand, solve demobilization, pay for welfare state Deficit and inflation will lower real rate of debt (Reparations hurt, but not the real cause)  Government continued to print more money to make it even worse  Reparations added to the situation  1914: 20 marks = 1 £ 1923: 16,000,000,000,000 = 1 £

Hyper-Inflation of 1923  January 1923 Germany failed to pay reparations ask for third Holiday on Reparations and declared in default  France and Belgium sent 60,000 troops into the Ruhr  German workers in the region strike – passive resistance  Clashes killed about 150 Germans  French seal Ruhr off from the rest of Germany    

Ruhr produced 80% of Germany’s steel and 70% of its coal No taxes collected and finances collapse Devastating impact on Germany’s economy German unemployment went from 2% to 23%

 Consequences  Traditional: Middle class destroyed  Revisionist: Winners: Debtors (mortgages, loans, homes paid off, borrow cheaply, buy land/factories), exporters, The State (pays off debts)  Losers: savers, investors, bond holders, fixed incomes, pensioners, landlords, welfare

Hyper-Inflation of 1923  Stresemann became chancellor in Aug 1923:  Led a brief coalition in government of DVP, DDP ZP, SPD  Brought in Schacht (banker) to help with currency crisis  Cuts spending, 700,000 Gov’t workers fired

   

Ordered Ruhr workers to cooperate with the French Resumed reparations payments Introduced new currency (Rentenmark) 1 rentenmark = 10,000,000,000,000 marks  Leads to Dawes Plan  Left and Right threats recede

 1924 Rentenmark was replaced with Reichsmark which continued until 1945

Hyper-Inflation of 1923  Why doesn’t Weimar collapse???    

People more angry at France than Weimar Inflation doesn’t hurt workers and helps many businesses Employers choose not to lay off workers No real alternative

 Strengths of Weimar economy    

Heavy industry back to 1913 levels by 1928 Huge banks, cartels Exports up 40% wages up 5-10% Social welfare: unemployment, sick pay, education, sports

 Weaknesses      

Growth uneven and declines after 1926 Trade deficit every year Average 2 mi. unemployed, world conditions stop exports Agri, income down 50% Inflation discourages savings and investment Welfare state requires more and more debt

Long-term effects of Hyper-Inflation  Many in the middle class who lost their savings in hyper-inflation were permanently alienated from Weimar Republic  Germany had a shortage of domestic business investment – needed for future increases in GDP  Germany was increasingly dependent on loans from USA (Dawes Plan). The Dawes Plan helped the situation in 1924-28, but when the economy in US tumbled in 1929, the US called back many of its loans compounding the bad situation in Germany

The Good Years 1924-29  Some historians believe the prosperity would not have lasted in Germany even without the Great Depression  Some historians believe the issues in the US really caused the collapse of the German economy in 1929

Evidence of Progress 1924-29  Economic  Dawes Plan inserted needed $ into economy  By 1928, industry exceeded its 1913 numbers  Foreign exports increased 40% from 1925-29

 Social  Workers’ wages rose 21% in 1927-28 alone, making them the highest paid in Europe  Government spending on health, education and social services was huge  1913 – 37% of govt spending  1932 – 68% of govt spending

 New universities in Hamburg and Cologne  Unemployment insurance issued for 17 million workers in 1927

Evidence of Progress 1924-29  Cultural  Germany (esp. Berlin) became a vibrant cultural center  Architecture – Bauhaus design movement  Literature – Thomas Mann, Nobel Prize 1929

 Political  There were no further attempts to seize power by the extreme Left or Right  1928 elections – both KPD (Communists) and DNVP (Nationalists) lost seats (KPD 62 to 54 seats, DNVP 95 to 73). Nazis only have 12 seats

Evidence of Progress 1924-29  Political cont  Moderate parties made huge gains – Social Democrats (SPD) from 100 to 153 seats  1928 – 1930, Grand Coalition of SPD (Social Democrats) DDP (Democratic Party) DVP (People’s Party) and ZP (Center Party) have over 60% of seats in Reichstag  KPD and DNVP (Nat’l Conservatives) decline  Hindenburg’s election in 1925 as President was a stabilizing factor as he was seen as a “Kaisersubstitute”

Evidence of Progress 1924-29  Germany’s International Situation  Gustav Stresemann (leader of German People’s Party)  Originally Opposed Weimar moves to Center after Rathanau, Erzberger assassinations

 Wants to accept parts of Versailles to end its effects  He was briefly Chancellor in 1923  Then became Foreign Minister until his death in 1929  Plan  Acknowledge French security issues  Use trade to cultivate US/GB  Cooperate with allies but keep ties to USSR  Policies were unpopular with the Nationalists but he made Germany accepted again diplomatically and even won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926 along with Aristide Briand (French Foreign Minister) for trying to improve Franco-German relations)

Stresemann’s Achievements  Actions:  Negotiated the withdrawal of French and Belgians from Ruhr in 1924  Helped negotiate Dawes Plan in 1924  Stresemann’s suggestion of recognizing and guaranteeing Western Europe’s frontiers was finalized into Locarno Pact of 1925  Germany was allowed in League of Nations 1926  Negotiated a partial withdrawal of the Rhineland by the Allies in 1928  Negotiated the Young Plan in 1929 which reduced the total reparations bill by almost two-thirds  When he died he was negotiating the final withdrawal of the Allied troops from Rhineland which happened earlier than scheduled in 1930  Leave early in exchage for final reparations settlement only 25% of original size

Evidence of continuing problems under Stresemann? Illusion of Stability???

 Political  Coalitions unstable:  SPD and DNVP never join coalitions 1923-1928 and KPD is isolated  Center-right ZP, DVP, DNVP agree on domestic but not foreign policy  Broad coalition SPD, DDP, DVP, ZP agree on foreign policy but not domestic  Minority Centrist Coalitions DDP, DVP, ZP need help from left or right  7 Govt’s 1923-30  SPD never joins til 1928, ZP moves right DDP,DVP (Liberals) support collapses

Evidence of continuing problems under Stresemann?  Political  German Nationalist Party (DNVP)    

Hates Wemar but joins gov’ts to have influence after 1925 1928 becomes radical right under Alfred Hugenberg Reverts to total opposition and works with Nazis opposed the Young Plan because it implied Germany still accepted war guilt.

 1928 Ebert dies and Hinderburg is President  Surprises all by being loyal to constitution he dislikes  Functions as a quasi-Kaiser  Prefers DNVP and tries to exclude SPD

 Center Party also moved to the right

Evidence of continuing problems under Stresemann?  Political  Overall the government doesn’t get stronger over time!!!  One gov’t falls over which flag to fly  Another over creating religious schools  “Grand Coalition” was unstable as it tried to negotiate with a range of parties from right of center to left.  In 1930 it collapsed after the SPD argued with its Center Party coalition partners over how to respond to the Great Depression  Overall Stresemann accomplishes a lot considering what he has to work with but…  … Fails to generate real support for Weimar

Evidence of continuing problems under Stresemann?  Economic  Germany was heavily reliant on US loans  Unemployment never went below 1.3 million and was up to 1.9 million by 1929 Crash  Agriculture was way behind industrial recovery in 1920s (tough competition from American and Canadian efficiency)

 Social  Farm workers’ wages were only just over half the national average in 1929

Rise and Rule of Single Party State in Germany 1918 – 1945: HITLER Rise to Power Paper 2 Review Everything you could ever want to know about Hitler for Paper 2, and then some!

The Nazi Party and Hitler  Hitler born 1889 in Austria  Poor student moves to Vienna 1907  Wanted to be an architect but applications to school were rejected by fine Arts Academy in Vienna  6 years in Vienna, Sold scenic paintings to earn a living  Became interested in writings of racist authors (like Lanz von Liebenfels)  Began to believe that Germans were superior to other nationalities of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (mainly Slavs) and the rest of the world

 Finds Purpose in WWI  Joins Bavarian Regt., fights bravely (Iron Cross) gassed at the end of the war  Forms core Ideas: Nationalis; anti democratic and anti-socialist, atisemitic  Racial view of society with German Volk as master race

The Nazi Party and Hitler  Psychological interpretations of Hitler are weak  One argues Hitler noted that many leading Socialists and Communists were Jews (Stab in the Back Theory)  Another that a Jewish prostitute gave him syphilis  He was a loner with no real friends so no one truly knows his motivations

The Nazi Party and Hitler  Post-war he is a gov’t spy for the Army in Bavaria tracking left wing groups  January 1919 Anton Drexler set up German Workers’ Party (DAP) to join working class and nationalists    

Sounds like a leftist party so Hitler investigates Actually nationalist, anti-semitic, anti-capitalist Hitler joins and immediately put on its Committee Hitler was put in charge of recruitment and propaganda in September 1919

 Helps produce the 25 Point Program  (combined nationalist and socialist demands, a “guide book” for Nazis)  1. Pan-Germanism, end Versailles, Lebensraum, expel Jews, People’s army, deport non-citizens to help employment, community over individual, profit sharing, Political war

The Nazi Party and Hitler 

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  

Mid 1921 is clear driving force of Party  1921 Hitler set up the Sturmabteilung (storm-troopers, or SA)  Rousing speeches, swastika, salute, uniforms are his idea  Drexler tries to limit Hitler’s power  For first time Hitler shows his skill as a politician and his willingness to gamble everything to win  He resigns from Nazi Party  Nazi’s realize he is their best speaker and demand his return forcing Drexler to Resign Hitler is now Fuhrer of the DAP SA was originally used to protect party meetings, and made up of former Freikorps  Fights pitched battles with communists in streets (Win the streets!)  People’s Observer Newspaper set up  1922 Brings in Streicher form N. Bavaria adds his newspaper  Goering joins in 1922, war hero, landowner = Social Contacts Party was renamed National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP) in 1921 Hitler and Nazis aimed to seize power by force, modeled on Mussolini’s March on Rome in Oct 1922 Led to the Munich Putsch (Beer Hall Putsch) which failed and Hitler sentenced to jail

What did Hitler learn from the failed Beer Hall Putsch?  He changed his tactics – used legal method rather than revolution  Party needed to broaden appeal beyond workingclass. He moved away from socialist ideas in the 25 Points toward more nationalist elements of the middle-class  Successfully reorganized the fractured Nazi Party after his stay in prison  SA were reorganized and given greater responsibility over propaganda  Founded SS (Shutzstaffel – bodyguards) and the Hitler youth in 1926  Party membership remained low – 35,000 in 1926 and only 12 seats in Reichstag in 1928 (3% of vote)

The Wall Street Crash of 1929  Effect on German Economy:  US investors withdrew money from Germany  German businesses went bankrupt and banks collapsed  Unemployment soared  Late 1920s – just under 2 million  1930 – 3.5 million  1931 – 4.4 million  1932 – 6 million

 Prices fell – lower profit margins forced more businesses to go bankrupt  Value of German exports fell more than 50%

The Wall Street Crash of 1929  Impact on German Politics:  Revived violent and unstable politics of 1918-23  Large-scale street violence  Each political party had its own paramilitary  Nazi SA  Communist Red Front

 Extremists grew in number and power  Chancellor Brüning (1930-32) was traditional and cautious  Kept government spending and taxes down  Waited for economy to improve  The unemployed were furious and turned to extremist political parties

 1930 - Nazis won 107 seats, Communists won 89

Nazis Membership Grows  Hitler was looked to as a ‘messiah’ to ‘save’ Germany  As unemployment skyrockets, so does Nazi party membership (Nazis promised job creation)  Weak leadership in government made Hitler look even better (Hitler even got 13 million votes to Hindenburg’s 18 million in April 1932 showing how strong a following he had)  Many were worried about a communist revolution and the 700,000 strong SA seemed to be able to provide security  Appealed to small farmers and peasants struggling under debt and falling food prices (they were promised subsidies)

Nazi Membership Grows  Nazis got support from lower middle-class (teachers, civil servants, etc) fearing they would become unemployed  SA was predominantly working-class, but Nazis had little support from this group overall  Nazis received financial backing from some leading industrialists who were worried about the socialists  Presented an image of dynamism and youth  Campaign tactics were more modern  Mass rallies created sense of belonging

Nazi Membership Grows  Nazi Propaganda (Goebbels) used different messages for different groups  Subsidies to peasants  Law and order and return to traditional values to middle class  Jobs for unemployed  Defense against communist revolution and revival of Germany as great power to conservative nationalists

 At the same time promised to unite all Germans  Jews, democratic system, Communists, and WWI victors were provided as scapegoats for Germany’s problems

Nazi Membership Grows  None of this was new, so why were these messages more effective in the 1930s than in the 1920s?  Widespread disillusionment with the Weimar Republic and democratic parties was far greater, as was the scale of Germany’s economic problems  Hitler had created a more respectable image for the Nazis after his release from prison and was therefore able to win more middle class support

Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)  No political party could command a majority in Reichstag  Article 48 of Weimar constitution gave president authority to declare state of emergency and govern by decree without consulting parliament  Hindenburg (President)  Didn’t like the Weimar Republic  Was a Nationalist  Thought the Nazis were thugs, but hated Social Democrats and Communists even more

Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)  1930 Hindenburg dismissed Chancellor Müller’s government and appointed Brüning (Center Party) to Chancellor  Brüning had little support in Reichstag but was able to rule because of Hindenburg’s use of emergency powers to pass laws  Hindenburg grew tired of having to support Brüning so he replaced him with conservative von Papen (but he had even less support)  Hindenburg agreed to call a general election in July 1932  Nazis triumphantly won 230 seats in Parliament (largest single party in Parliament, but not yet a majority – still needed to form a coalition)

Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)  Hindenburg asked Hitler to join a coalition, but Hitler refused unless he could be Chancellor  Hindenburg refused (hated Hitler and feared SA) and called a second general election in November 1932  Nazis lost seats (down to 196) but was still largest single party

 Hindenburg fired von Papen for not being able to form a coalition and replaced him with General Kurt von Schleicher

Breakdown of Democratic Government (1930-32)  Nazi morale was low  Lost seats in second election  Low on money from two campaigns  Some in party were becoming impatient and were calling for an armed rising

 Von Schleicher tried to take advantage and split the Nazi party by getting support of the ‘left-wing’ Nazis, but this did not work  Hitler quickly reasserted his control over the Nazis

Why was Hitler appointed Chancellor on Jan 30, 1933?  Hindenburg decided it was the only way to achieve a majority coalition  Hindenburg actually didn’t mind offering it to him (he wasn’t worried) since the Nazi’s position was a bit weaker than it had been in November  Only 3 of the 11 Cabinet ministers were Nazi

From Chancellor to Dictator in 1.5 years  1933  January  February

Hitler appointed Chancellor Reichstag fire

 Communists and union leaders arrested

 March

Reichstag elections

 Nazis won 44%, Nationalists only 8%

 March

Enabling Act

 Hitler could then bypass the Reichstag to make laws

 March  State parliaments are Nazi majority  (all state parliaments abolished in 1934)

From Chancellor to Dictator in 1.5 years  1933 cont  April  Hitler replaced all 18 state governors with Nazis

 May  Trade unions banned and replaced by the German Labour Front

 June  All parties except Nazis banned

 July  Law passed making the Nazi Party the sole legal party

From Chancellor to Dictator in 1.5 years  1934  June

Night of the Long Knives

 Ernst Rohm and other SA leaders arrested or killed  Hitler claimed they had been planning a putsch  SA absorbed into the military

 August

President Hindenburg died

 Hitler made himself Fuhrer, combining positions of President and Chancellor  Army swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler

Hitler’s Ideology This is not clearly defined, although his reasoning is set forth in Mein Kampf. It was different from Mussolini’s fascism in that Hitler had a unique racial and anti-Semitic program not present in Italy. The Nazi’s 25 Points of 1920 were a strange mix of nationalist and socialist elements. It became clear though that Hitler was not committed to the socialist element.

Hitler’s Ideology  Elements that Predate Hitler    

Racial Superiority: Herrenvolk, and goal to unite all Germans Anti-Semitism: de Gobineau, von Gerder, Langbehn, German elites anti-semitic Leader Cult: Fuehrerprincip: Superior indivuals to lead lower orders who are unthinking and easily swayed  Social Darwinism: Herbert Spencer; instinctive fight for survival  Nationalism/  Volksgemeinschaft: Corporatism: anti-democratic, compromise evil, state is all

 Hitler in 1920’s    

Anti-feminism War Ideology Lebenraum Racial unity and anti-semitism defined (Big Capitalists or Communists, stab in the back)  Pan-Germanism  End Versailles  Anti-Marxism

How Important was Hitler’s Ideology to His Rule? 

25 Point Program is refined throughout the ‘20’s  Anti-Marxism becomes a dominant theme  Nazi’s claim only they are strong enough to fight Marxists  Jewish/Communist link

 

Nationalism overwhelms socialist elements of 25 Points Ideology Important?  Attracts & inspires followers  http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vezr3dW4J5s&bpctr=1389965548  Bases many policies on Ideology

 Gleichshaltung: eliminate unions, political parties, Church Organizations (all dissenting voices)  Nationalism: end Versailles  Hitler Youth = Volksgemeinschaft  Nationalism = Krystallnacht, final solution  Inconsistent on anti-feminism (ebbs and flows as a result of WWII  Avoids war for 6 years  No aid to agriculture

Hitler’s Ideology cont The Volk community was everything to Hitler, the individual was nothing. His aim was to create a society in which every individual saw the purpose of their life as contributing to the greater good of the German volk. He attacked individual rights and his Volksgemeinschaft had no room for asocials, disabled, or non-Aryans

Policy toward asocials  1936 “asocial colony” of Hashude  For chronic alcoholics  Late 1930s they were sent to concentration camps  10,000 tramps were sent to concentration camps  25,000 gypsies (Germany had about 30,000) died in camps in WWII

Policy towards the disabled  1932 the Prussian Health Council proposed voluntary sterilization for certain hereditary diseases  July 1933 Nazi Sterilization Law made it compulsory (320,000 were sterilized)  Euthanasia 1939-41  Physically and mentally handicapped (72,000)

Anti-Semitic policies  May 1933 SA organized one day boycott of Jewish businesses  Shortly after Hitler in power, Jewish civil servants are fired  1935 Nuremberg Laws deprive Jews of German citizenship  1938 Kristallnacht    

Attack on Jewish properties and synagogues 20,000 Jews arrested Jews made to pay for cleanup Jewish doctors and lawyers were forbidden to work for Aryans  Jewish children had to attend separate schools

 1942 Wansee Conference  Final Solution (extermination of Jews) was decided

Hitler’s System of Government  Single party Dictatorship?  Control at the center  Hermann Goering brought in 50;000 extra police (mainly sA) and purged many policemen  Reichstag Fire led to suspension of civil liberties  Destruction of the Communist party  Enabling Act, by which Hitler : bypass the Reichstag

 No opposition groups    

Trade unions were banned replaced by the German Labour Front SPD was banned one party state State parliaments were abolished and state governments made subordinate to the Reich  army's oath of allegiance to Hitler

Hitler’s System of Government  Was Nazi control fully in place?  Reichsrat and state parliaments abolished but rest of Weimar Constitution remains  Civil Service purged but not all Nazi’s til 1939  Reich Ministers not all Nazi’s til 1937  Himmler does control police by 1936  Army remains quasi-independent  SA “People’s Army” Scrapped by Hitler to appease Regular Army  Army Nationalist but fears rapid re-armament, Waffen – SS and Hitler’s goal of expansion in Russia  Purge begins 1938 with dismissal of War Minister and the Army Commander in Chief for “sex scandals” (false)  Keitel becomes head of High Command (OKW) but he is Hitler’s stooge  16 Generals resign, 44 transferred, Hitler now controls Army

Hitler’s System of Government  Was full control ever established?  Hitler undermines order appoints several people to essentially the same job  Have to compete for Hitler’s attention  Adds new institutions rather than eliminating any  Example: Four Year Plan Office, Road and Defense Building Dept. and Economics Ministry all have overlapping functions  Sets up Nazi Party Reich Authorities that have same jobs as regular Government Ministries

 Cabinet Gov’t ceases  Meets 72 times 1933, 4 times 1936, never again after 1938

 Hitler is notoriously lazy and uninterested in day to day governance particularly economics  Question is whether chaos was deliberate  to force all ministries to come to him (Strong Dictator theory Trevor-Roper, Bracher, Bullock)  … or an accident of 1933-34 power seizure (Weak Dictator theory (Mommsen, Broszat)

The Use of FEAR  Decree for the Protection of People and State  Feb 1933 allowed for indefinite detention w/o trial

 Dachau  1st concentration camp opened in March 1933  Never fewer than 10,000 prisoners  Overall about 225,000 imprisoned for political reasons (far fewer than Stalin)

 Hermann Goering set up Gestapo in 1933  Heinrich Himmler took over  In some cases over 50% of all charges were brought to the police by citizens

The Use of FEAR cont  SS created in 1925 (Himmler in control after 1929)    

Immense power after Night of the Long Knives 200,000 members by 1935 Ran the concentration camps Enforced racial policies

 SD set up in 1931 by Himmler  Gathered intelligence and monitored public opinion

 After 1933, Civil Sevice Law: Judges could be removed for political beliefs  Judges ordered to interpret the law according to ‘the will of the Fuhrer’

Control of the Media  Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda  March 1933  Josef Goebbels  Reich Radio Company brought all broadcasting under Nazi control  Volksefpfanger (cheap radio) mass-produced  In 1932 only 25% of households had a radio  By 1939 more than 70% had a radio

 In 1933 there were 4700 daily newspapers  By 1944 there were only 1000 newspapers  Eher Verlag (Nazi publishing house) controlled 66% of the press by 1939

Control of the Media  Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda  Movies used, Swastikas everywhere  Constant meetings, rallies, festivals

 SUCCESS???  More successful in reinforcing already held views than changing peoples minds  Does work with the young and inexperienced.

Nazi policies toward women  Kinder, Kirche, Kuche  Employment was restricted  Excluded from civil service

 Marriage encouraged  From 1933, women who left work to marry were given an interest free marriage loan (amount to be repaid fell 25% with each child born)

 Women’s Enterprise (DFW) trained women in domestic skills  By 1935 3.5 million women taken courses

Nazi policies toward women  European birth rate was low, but especially in Germany, so…  Medals for prolific mommies  Bronze 4-5 kids  Silver 6-7  Gold for 8 or more

 Divorce was made easy for childless marriages  Results  990,000 born in 1932  1.28 million born in 1937

 By 1936, women were needed due to labor shortages (1943 they were conscripted)

Youth in Nazi Germany  Hitler Jugend was set up in 1925  By 1933 there were only 55,000  Other youth groups totaled 5-6 million  1933 all other youth groups closed, except those run by Catholic Church, and absorbed into the HJ  By 1939 82% of 11-18 year-olds in the HJ or the League of German Maidens (for girls)  1939 membership was compulsory, but attendance was far from perfect  Boys were trained for war and girls for motherhood

Education  Main aim was to develop loyalty to the regime  No emphasis on the individual  1933 Law for Restoration of a Professional Civil Service led to a purge of teachers  History and Biology lessons especially became politicized  Emphasis on physical education  Eugenics (idea of selective breeding) was introduced and taught

Nazis and Religion  Catholic Church:  1933 Concordat with the Pope  Bishops had to take oath of loyalty to Nazi state  Nazis broke the agreement in 1936 by closing down Catholic youth groups and monasteries  Pope denounced the Nazi regime in 1937 ‘With Burning Concern’  The Catholic press was closed down in 1941

Nazis and Religion  Protestant Churches  Nazis tried to control from within  1933 Nazis won 75% of votes in Church elections and their leader, Ludwig Muller, was made Reich Bishop  Church leaders opposed and established the ‘Confessional Church’  Its leaders were imprisoned

German Economy  By 1933, Hitler knew he needed to tackle economic problems (esp unemployment)  Hitler ignored socialist elements of the Twenty-Five Points and rejected SA calls for nationalization of industry (industrialists obviously liked this)  1936 New Plan  Govt control of foreign exchange and trade agreements  Peasant farmers protected by tariffs and helped by cheap loans and tax exemptions

German Economy cont  What did Hitler do to solve unemployment?    

1932 1934 1937 1938

5.6% 2.3% 0.9% 0.2%

 Public works spending:  New houses, planting forests

 Expansion of car industry:  Removed tax on luxury cars and cut tax on gas  Autobahn

German Economy cont  Cash incentives to women for giving up their jobs  Massive re-armament program after 1935  Re-introduced conscription in 1935 – young men 18-20 no longer in workforce  By 1937, there was actually a shortage of skilled labor  By 1938 GNP had risen to 80 billion from a low of 44 billion in 1933  By 1939 wages had recovered to 89% of their 1928 level

Four Year Plan (1936)  Germany’s balance of payments (imports and exports) was out of whack  Hitler could not risk cutting back on food imports, so decided to cut industrial raw materials imports (rubber, oil, iron)  Planned to produce synthetics domestically  Overall the plan was not a success, though rubber and oil production did increase  By 1939 Germany was still importing 19% of its food requirements

Rearmament  Government spending in billions of Reichsmarks    

1932 1933 1935 1938

0.8 1.9 6.0 17.2

 1933 Germany had 100,000 army, no tanks, no warplanes, limited navy  By 1939 it had 1200 bombers, 980,000 army, navy was three times larger  66% of German industrial investment was devoted to war production from 1936-1939

Historical divide:  Most historians say that Hitler was actually only gearing up for a limited war (series of short blitzkrieg campaigns) that would allow Germany to exploit economic resources of conquered countries before moving on. USSR spoiled this when Germany got bogged down in a war of attrition with them.  Some historians point to the overwhelming percentage of spending on war preparation as proof of total war plans, and that Hitler miscalculated his invasion of Poland dragging all of Europe into war.

Opposition to the Nazis  Came from many places:    

Socialists Communists Working class people Church  Both Catholic and Protestant

 There was some slight opposition from within the army, but since rearmament policies favored Nazi officers, it was few and far between (at least until middle of 1944!)  By 1945 500,000 Germans were in concentration camps for opposition

Why was opposition limited?  Over the years the Nazis became fairly popular due to:  Propaganda  Their results on unemployment and in foreign policy

 Organized opposition was eliminated  1933 political parties, trade unions, etc

 Opposition was illegal and the SS and Gestapo inspired fear and terror

Foreign Policy Goals:  Lebensraum – living space  Priority was to “fix” the injustices of the Versailles Treaty (TOV)  Commitment to the creation of a Greater German Reich (or Third Reich…what were the first two?) and rid the country of untermenschen (sub-humans)

Foreign Policy Revision of TOV Achievements in 1935:  Saar region becomes part of Germany again  Hitler reintroduces conscription and announces rearmament

Opposition to Germany breaks down (known as Stresa Front):  Italy, Britain and France  Britain signed Anglo-German Naval agreement in June 1935 pissed off Italy and France  Mussolini attacked Abyssinia (modern Somalia) in Oct 1935 pissing off Britain and France

Foreign Policy Appeasement:  France and Britain  Why?  Many felt harshness of TOV was unjust  Bitter memories of WWI slaughter  Britain more worried about Japanese expansion threatening British interests in Far East  French leaders felt France was too weak to fight again without British help  Many in France were more worried about Communist expansion  Economic problems of the Great Depression were more important  Britain and France knew they needed USA help in confronting Germany, but US was practicing isolationism

Foreign Policy Alliances:  Hitler and Mussolini send troops to Spain to help Franco in Spanish Civil War 1936-39  Germany continued trading with Italy during Abyssinian Crisis 1935-36 even though League imposed sanctions on Italy  Rome-Berlin Axis friendship treaty Oct 1936  Hitler realized Japanese hated USSR as much as he did and signed the AntiComintern Pact in Nov 1936

Anschluss  Union with Austria (had been forbidden in TOV)  Achieved by March 1938  Hitler was actually Austrian  Austrians “voted” (supervised by Nazis) with 99% in favor of union

Sudeten Crisis Sept 1938