Introductory Psychology Concepts

January 23, 2018 | Author: Anonymous | Category: Social Science, Psychology, Conformity
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Motivation and Emotion

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Motivation

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Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation

Motivation: The process by which activities are started, directed, and sustained to fulfill both physical and psychological needs.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation

Instinct Approach to Motivation: Actions Motivated By Innate Behavior Patterns Instincts: Inborn patterns of behavior that are biologically determined rather than learned. • People and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival. • Instincts provide the energy that channels behavior in appropriate directions.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation

Drive Reduction Theories: Hunger Motivates Action To Find Food To Reduce Hunger. Drive: motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need. • Primary drives: Related to biological needs of the body, or the species as a whole (hunger, thirst, sleep, sex). • Secondary drives: Behavior fulfills no obvious biological need (people have strong needs to achieve academically and professionally).

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation

Homeostasis: Underlying Primary Drives and the Body’s Tendency to Maintain a Steady Internal State. With Homeostasis, a series of feedback loops is used to regulate body functions, similar to the way a thermostat controls the air temperature in a room.

When body temperature becomes too high, the blood vessels expand, and we sweat as our bodies try to lower the temperature.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts : Motivation

Types of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy Before more sophisticated, higher-order needs can be met, certain primary needs must be satisfied (Maslow, 1987). Motivation progresses up the pyramid from the broadest, most fundamental biological needs to higher-order needs.

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Eating Disorders

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Anorexia Nervosa Weight loss of at least 15% of ideal weight. A severe eating disorder in which people may refuse to eat while denying that their behavior and appearance are unusual.

Despite looking skeleton-like to others, people with the weight disorder anorexia nervosa see themselves as overweight.

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Bulimia Nervosa The cycle of bingeing and purging. A disorder in which a person binges on incredibly large portions of food and later may attempt to purge the food through vomiting or the use of laxatives.

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Bulimia Nervosa – video (playtime 2.36)

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Causes of Eating Disorders Biological Factors A chemical imbalance in the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, perhaps brought on by genetic factors.

Societal Pressures

Society’s valuation of slenderness and the parallel notion that obesity is undesirable.

Mood Disorders (Bulimic) food cravings are often triggered by stress and negative mood, bingeing temporarily reduces a negative emotional state.

Family Environment Disorder resulting from overly demanding parents or other family problems.

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Treatment of Eating Disorders Treatment is difficult and may take years, but with professional help, about half of all anorexic and bulimic patients fully recover. (Becker et al., 1999; Westin et al., 20004)

Others are able to eat more normally but maintain their preoccupation with food and weight.

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Sexuality

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Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Sexuality: Physical and Psychological Perspective Sex is often described as a biological reproductive motive, yet people usually do not have sex to conceive children.  



Evolution shaped our physiology so that sex feels good Periodically, having sex for pleasure leads to childbirth, through which our genes are passed on. People engage in sex to: Reproduce Obtain and give sensual pleasure Express love Foster intimacy Fulfill one’s “duty” Conform to peer pressure, and a host of other reasons.

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Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Female Sex Organs

Ovary Uterus Cervix Bladder Pubic bone

Vagina

Urethra Anus

Clitoris

Female

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Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Male Sex Organs

Large intestine Bladder Seminal vesicle

Pubic bone

Ejaculatory duct

Vas deferens

Prostate

Urethra

Anus

Penis Testis Scrotum Glans

Male

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Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Psychological Side of Sexuality •







Sexual arousal typically begins with desire and a sexual stimulus that is perceived positively (Walen & Roth, 1987). Sexual fantasy is an important component of many people’s lives, studies indicate that men sexually fantasize more than women (Martinez & Raul, 2000). Psychological factors can not only trigger sexual arousal but also inhibit it. Stress, fatigue, and anger at one’s partner can lead to temporary arousal problems. Sexual dysfunction refers to chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses a person. It may result from injuries, diseases, and drug effects, some causes are psychological.

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Gender

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Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Psychological Side of Sexuality 







Gender: The psychological experience of being male of female. Gender Roles: Typical behaviors which people learn that belong to males and females as dictated by their cultural norms. Gender Typing: Process by which people learn appropriate gender roles within their cultures. Gender Identity: One’s view of oneself as male of female.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Gender: Perception of Being Male or Female Although there is a good deal of overlap between the concepts of sex and gender, they are not the same.  

Sex typically refers to sexual anatomy and sexual behavior Gender refers to the sense of maleness or femaleness related to our membership in a given society.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Gender: Psychological Aspect of Being Male or Female Men and women differ in how positively they view their own abilities and how they estimate the probability of their future success. 





In general, women evaluate themselves more harshly than men do. Content of men’s and women’s speech differs, with women’s speech being more precise. Speech patterns lead others to view them as more tentative, less assertive. Women’s and men’s nonverbal behavior differs in several significant respects. In conversation with opposite sex, women look at their partner significantly more while listening than while speaking.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Gender Typing: Process in Which People Learn their Cultural Appropriate Gender Role Starting from the moment of birth, with blue blankets for boys and pink ones for girls, most parents and other adults provide environments that differ according to gender. 



Differences in environment and activity based on gender are described as socialization, the process by which an individual learns the rules and norms of appropriate behavior. According to Sandra Bem (1998), socialization produces a gender schema, a mental framework that organizes and guides a child’s understanding of information relevant to gender.

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Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Gender Identity Gender identity: The sense of “femaleness” or “maleness” that becomes a central aspect of one’s personal identity. 



Most children develop a basic gender identity between the ages of 2 and 3 and can label themselves and others as being either a boy or a girl. Gender constancy is the understanding that being male or female is a permanent part of person, developing at age 6 or 7.

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Gender Stereotyping As gender identity develops, children acquire sex-role stereotypes--beliefs about the characteristics and behaviors that are appropriate for boys and girls to possess. 





Every group, including family and cultural groups, has norms for expected and accepted gender behavior. Parents, siblings, friends, the mass media, and other socializing agents convey these norms as we grow up. As we internalize these norms, they become part of our identity (Martin & Ruble, 2004).

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Sexuality

Gender Stereotyping: Positive and Negative Aspects Stereotyping can be either negative or positive, but in either case stereotyping is inherently harmful for three reasons: 

1) Stereotypes reduce our ability to treat members of a gender as individuals.



2) Stereotypes lead to narrow expectations for gender behavior.



3) Stereotypes lead to faulty attributions, the theory that people tend to look for explanations for specific behavior based on gender stereotypes.

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Gender Roles

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Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Roles

Culture’s Expectation: For Male and Female Behavior Gender-role socialization provides us with gender schemas, organized mental structures that contain our understanding of the attributes and behaviors that are appropriate and expected for males and females (Bem, 1981).

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Introductory Psychology Concepts: Gender Roles

Theories of Children Learning Gender Roles Social-learning theory: 

Gender differences are learned through a society’s division of labor and the social roles established for men and women.

Gender schema theory: 



Within a given culture, gender schemas tell us what the typical man or woman should be like. In Western cultures, men tend to prize attributes related to achievement, emotional strength, athleticism. Women prize interpersonal competencies, kindness, and helpfulness to others (Beyer, 1990; Marsh, 1990).

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Emotions

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Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements that can influence behavior. Components of emotion Emotions are triggered by external or internal eliciting stimuli.

Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli

Cognitive appraisal

Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that can influence behavior. Components of emotion Emotional responses result from our appraisal of these stimuli.

Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli

Cognitive appraisal

Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that can influence behavior. Components of emotion Our bodies respond physiologically to our appraisals.

Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli

Cognitive appraisal

Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that influence behavior. Components of emotion Emotions include behavior tendencies: + Expressive (smiling, crying) + Instrumental (fighting back in self-defense)

Physiological responses Eliciting stimuli

Cognitive appraisal

Instrumental behaviors Expressive behaviors

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Theories of Emotion The James-Lange Theory Our bodily reactions determine the subjective emotion we experience.

The Cannon-Bard Theory The subjective experiences of emotion and physiological arousal do not cause one another, but instead are independent responses to an emotionarousing situation.

The Schacter-Singer Theory Emotions are determined jointly by a nonspecific kind of physiological arousal and its interpretation, based on environmental cues.

Schacter’s Two-Factor Theory The intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we are feeling something, but situational cues give us the information we need to label the arousal and tell ourselves what we are feeling. © 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Facial Feedback Hypothesis According to the facial feedback hypothesis, feedback from the facial muscles to the brain plays a key role in determining the nature and intensity of emotions that we experience. (Adelmann & Zajonc, 1989). Holding a pencil in the teeth activates the muscles used in smiling, and thus evokes more pleasant feelings than holding the pencil in one’s lips.

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Language of the Face – video (playtime 4.59)

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