John Locke

John Locke Second Treatise on Government

Locke’s Second Treatise I. II. III. IV.

Biographical/Historical Background State of Nature One Freedom, Liberty, and License Property and Labor

I.  

Historical Background John Locke (1632 – 1704) Enters Oxford in 1651 

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Studies philosophy, natural history, medicine

Becomes physician and advisor to First Earl of Shaftesbury (big Whig politician) Reign of Charles II, Charles dies in 1685

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Historical Background Line of succession issue (Catholic vs. Protestant) Locke – through Shaftesbury – gets implicated in plot to assassinate James Leaves England for Holland in 1683 

Begins to write anonymous political pamphlets, including the Two Treatises on Government (1689)

I. 

Historical Background 1688 “Glorious Revolution” in England 

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Replace the Catholic line from James with William and Mary (both Protestant)

Locke was an advisor to William while the two of them were in Holland together In exchange for throne, William & Mary agreed to a more limited, constitutional monarchy Signed “Toleration Act” which allowed for religious toleration for most faiths (except Catholicism and Unitarianism)

I. 

Historical Background Locke lives out his days on government pension

… without further ado, Locke’s Second Treatise

II. 

Locke begins Chapter 2: 

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State of Nature 1 “To understand political power right, and derive it from its original, me must consider what state all men are naturally in…”

What we need to know, then, is the natural condition of mankind

II.

Continuing with the quote from the opening of Chapter 2

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State of Nature 1

“… and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions, and dispose of their possessions, and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of Nature, without asking leave, or depending upon the will of any other man.”

What does that mean?

II.

State of Nature 1 Individuals living in state of nature Also seems we need to know 3 things:

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 1. 2. 3.

Freedom Law of nature Property Rights

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

Two senses of freedom at work here 

Free from any social bonds, which means  

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Not dependent on the will of any other people I can do “X” without asking someone else’s approval to do “X” Bear in mind, he is saying that this freedom is natural; that we naturally are free from any social constraints or relations Note: to this point in human history, very few people could be said to enjoy freedom in this sense

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

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But it’s not just any freedom, rather it’s freedom in accord with “the law of nature” And that law is: 

“The state of Nature has a law of Nature to govern it, which obliges every one: and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind, who will but consult it, that being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions” (chp.2, par 6).

III. Freedom, Liberty, License We get 2 arguments to support this view:

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Religious  

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Each of us is created in God’s image We don’t have the right to destroy ourselves (as we are God’s creatures), so we can’t have the right to destroy others like us

Secular  

“equal and independent” phrase Moral sympathy and rationality

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

Summary 

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In state of nature we have freedom, which is life in accordance with the law of nature Distinction between liberty and license For Locke, liberty is not the right to do everything, but rather to do anything in accordance with the law of nature

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

But…How can I be free if I must obey a law?

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? Does freedom mean doing anything you want to do?

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

Drug addict example    

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Do I want to be the kind of person who smokes crack? Do I want to smoke crack now? Or now? Or.. Only the first person is truly free Freer in that life is more fully an expression of your own will

When following the laws of nature, you are following the dictates of your own reason and nothing else

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

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In other words, freedom does not mean war… it means peace! Think of interpersonal interaction … do we need a sovereign to tell us what is right?

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

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So, for Locke, a state of nature is when we are all free, indeed it is a state of perfect freedom Also a state of equality, since no one is forced to submit to any authority higher than the dictates of her own reason

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

Chapter 2 “A state also of equality, wherein all the power and jurisdiction is reciprocal, no one having more than another: there being nothing more evident, than that creatures of the same species and rank promiscuously born to all the same advantages of Nature, and the use of the same faculties, should also be equal one amongst another without subordination or subjection, unless the Lord and Master of them all, should by any manifest declaration of his will set one above another, and confer on him by an evident and clear appointment an undoubted right to dominion and sovereignty.”

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

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For Hobbes, freedom and equality were in large measure responsible for the state of nature being a war of all against all For Locke, freedom and equality lead to a radically different situation

III. Freedom, Liberty, License “Men living together according to reason, without a common superior on Earth, with authority to judge between them, is properly the state of Nature” (chp. 3, par. 19).

III. Freedom, Liberty, License 

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Which raises the question of why we would ever leave the state of nature? Why not anarchy? Do we find any problems lurking in the state of nature????

IV. Property & Labor 

Source of Private Property?

IV. Property & Labor 

2 Caveats though:  

no spoilage must leave as good in kind for others to appropriate 

that is, after you take your share, there’s still enough left for others to take their share

V. State of Nature 2 

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Add money economy Effect on our relations?

Wealth

Inequality in the State of Nature I

A

B

C Individuals

D

Wealth

Inequality in the State of Nature I

Rough Equality

A

(chp. 5,par. 37; par 41)

B

C Individuals

D

Wealth

Inequality in the State of Nature 2

After the introduction of a money economy, inequality becomes much more extreme

A

B

C Individuals

D

Wealth

Inequality in the State of Nature 2

After the introduction of a money economy, inequality becomes much more extreme

A But everyone is better off (chp. 5, par. 47)

B

C Individuals

D

VI. Mutual Advantage & the Social Contract 

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If we have social relations... And we have economic relations... Why do we need political relations? Why won’t people be able to get along? Why do we need politics?

Don’t Cooperate

Don’t Cooperate

Cooperate

3,3

1,4

4,1

2,2

Cooperate

Prisoners’ Dilemma

VII. Prisoners’ Dilemma Symbolic Form:  We’re in a Prisoner’s Dilemma situation whenever: T>R>P>S Temptation to defect > Rewards of Cooperation Rewards > Punishment for Not Cooperating Punishment > Sucker’s Payoff 

VII. Prisoners’ Dilemma 

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Note that even if we start at the cooperative outcome, that outcome is not stable Each player can improve his/her position by adopting a different strategy    

4 = best option 3 = 2nd best option 2 = 2nd worst option 1 = worst option

(Temptation) (Reward) (Punishment) (Sucker

Don’t Cooperate

Don’t Cooperate

Cooperate

3,3

1,4

4,1

2,2

Cooperate

Prisoners’ Dilemma

VII. Prisoners’ Dilemma 

But since both players have changed strategy we end up at the non-cooperative outcome, where both players are worse off than if they had chosen to cooperate

Don’t Cooperate

Don’t Cooperate

Cooperate

3,3

1,4

4,1

2,2

Cooperate

Prisoners’ Dilemma

VII. Prisoners’ Dilemma 

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And, as we noted, this non-cooperative outcome is also a Nash equilibrium outcome Neither player has any incentive to change strategy since whoever changes will do immediately worse by making the move

Don’t Cooperate

Don’t Cooperate

Cooperate

3,3

1,4

4,1

2,2

Cooperate

Prisoners’ Dilemma

VIII.Mutual Advantage and the Social Contract 

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Prevent defections and allow for cooperative behavior What kind of political life? 

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Need to insure that everyone agrees to terms of contract What sort of terms would arise?

Sovereign

We the People

Sovereign

Reciprocal Obligations

We the People

The Social Contract Binds the Sovereign and the People

We the People

Sovereign

VIII.Mutual Advantage and the Social Contract 

Locke’s Social Contract then includes:   

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Rights to protect us against the government Popular sovereignty Legislative power supreme (rather than the executive as in a monarchy) Basis for this -- fundamental equality of all human beings