Structure
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Structure
In all but the most ephemeral groups, members are distributed into different roles, and their behavior when in these roles is regulated by norms that dictate what is and what is not proper conduct. The group structure also includes the relationships that join members to one another in an integrated network that regulates interdependencies and increases the group’s unity and durability.
What is group structure? What are norms, how do they develop, and how do they work to regulate behavior? What kinds of roles are common in groups and how do they influence members? How do social networks shape status, attraction, and communication processes in groups?
Norms
Roles
The Nature Of Social Norms
The Nature of Social Roles
Social Network Analysis
The Importance of Norms
Role Theories
Network Dynamics
Group Socialization
Application: SYMLOG
Role Stress
Relations
The nature of social norms
Norms are consensual and often implicit standards that describe what behaviors should and should not be performed in a given context. ■
Norms are group standards. Provide direction and motivation Organize social interactions Make others’ responses predictable Folkways are ubiquitous social standards Mores are more strictly enforced moral rules
The nature of social norms
Development of Norms
Sherif's (1936) autokinetic effect studies
Participants just judged the distance a dot of light moved in a darkened room
Autokinetic Effect
It moved about 3.5 inches
But, unbeknown to the participants, a stationary dot of light will seem to move
What if people make their judgments with others, and state estimates aloud?
Looks like 1 inch
I’d say 2 inches
7.5 inches
Initially, they differ; but over trials, they converge
The creation of a norm
Average distance estimates
Person A
Convergence
Person B Person C Alone
Group Session 1
Group Session 2
Group Session 3
When Sherif put in a confederate in some groups who made exaggerated distance judgments others (B, C) conformed
Average distance estimates
Confederate
Person B Person C New Member,Alone Person D
Group Session 1
Group Session 2
Group Session 3
Even when the confederate was replaced, the norm remained
Person B
New member
Average distance estimates
Person C
Person D Group Session 4
Group Session 1
Group Session 2
Group Session 3
The exaggerated norm lasted for many “generations” of replacements
Average distance estimates
Group Judgment
33
44
5
6
Generations
7
8
9
The Importance of Norms
Internalization of norms
• Individuals experience discomfort when the realize they are acting contrary to a norm— especially, an injunctive one. (Milgram’s norm-violation demonstration).
Health and normative influence
Pluralistic ignorance
• Norms support positive, health promoting actions, but also negative ones, including eating disorders and excessive alcohol consumption.
• Members may privately disagree with the norm, but they assume they are the only ones who do, and so the norm remains in place.
The Importance of Norms
Examples • Laptops in classrooms • Alcohol use on campuses • Recycling and waste • Thin-body norms • Pop music • Common courtesy • Online “behavior”
Facebook Norms • I should not say anything disrespectful about this person on Facebook. • I should consider how a post might negatively impact this person’s relationships. • If I post something that this person deletes, I should not repost it. • I should NOT post information on Facebook that this person could later use against me.
Norms
Roles
Relations
The nature of social roles
Roles: The types of behaviors expected of individuals who Role theories occupy particular positions within the group (e.g., roles in a play) Group socialization Independent of individuals Flexible, to an extent Role stress Structure interaction, create patterns of action, define responsibilities
The Nature of Social Roles
Role differentiation: An increase in the number of roles in a group, accompanied by a decrease in the scope of those roles as each one becomes more narrowly defined and specialized Relationship Role
Task Role
Two types of roles emerge with great regularity in groups: Task roles (performance and initiating structure and Relationship roles (strength of bonds among members).
Role Theories
Benne and Sheats (1948) developed their well-known functional theory of roles by observing the interactions of groups at the National Training Laboratories (NTL), an They identified organization devoted to the three types of improvement of groups. roles: task, relational, and individualistic
Functional Role Theory
Functional Role Theory
Functional Role Theory
Interactionist Role Theory
Group members share a basic sense of the requirements of the roles that are common in most group settings, • Role sending but they work out the details of • Role taking their roles and their demands as • Role they interact with one another enactment Example: Bechky’s analysis of production teams
Rooted in a selfpresentational perspective
Example: Bechky’s analysis of production teams
Deep Role Theory
A Psychodynamic Perspective on Roles
Example: Moxnes “Deep Roles” Theory
Group Socialization
Group Socialization
Over time members transition from new member to full member
Resocialization
As newcomers learn their roles they become more committed to the group
Role transitions
Role socialization
Moreland and Levine's group socialization theory The process is mutual: members and the group adapt to each other (assimilation/ accomodation)
Stages
Transitions
Types Processes
Group Socialization: Moreland & Levine
Different individuals take different paths through this process: Three examples are shown
Member B
Member A
Member C
Role Stress
Roles create stable group relations, but they can also be the source of group conflict and personal stress
Roles stress may vary from one country and culture to another
Norms
Roles
The Nature Of Social Norms
The Nature of Social Roles
Social Network Analysis
The Importance of Norms
Role Theories
Network Dynamics
Group Socialization
Application: SYMLOG
Role Stress
Relations
Social Network Analysis
Creating spatial maps of groups based on structure
Who is connected to whom?
A relatively “flat” group
What if these ties are removed?
Social Network Analysis
Clique 2
Clique 1
A group with 2 subgroups
Centralized and decentralized subgroups
Social Network Analysis
4
Subgroup A
5
8
6
9
3 7
Subgroup B
10
2
11 1
Key Terms
N = 13, possible ties = n(n-1) = 156
Nodes Ties (directed) Density Fernandez (29/156) = .19 Degree centrality • Outdegree • Indegree Betweenness Zerbino Closeness Holes
E. Strauch
F. Strauch
Turcatti
Vizintin
Algorta Paez
Canessa Methol Delgado
Mangino
Parrado
http://content.nejm.org/content/vol357/issue4/images/data/370/DC2/NEJM_Christakis_370v1.swf
Network Dynamics
Status networks: Stable pattern of variations in authority and power
The Strauchs & Fernandez Zerbino, Paez, Algorta
Expeditionaries
Disabled and injured
Parrado
Younger Members
Vizintin
Francois
Methol
Harley
Canessa
Jabella
Inciarte
Delgado
Turcatti
Mangino
Nogueira Echauarren
Malingerers
The informal (actual) status structure does not always match the group’s mandated (formal) structure
Attraction network (sociometric structure): Stable
patterns of liking-disliking
1 7
1 7
3
3
2 6
5
4
4
6 5
2
Status
Attraction
Heider's balance theory: likes and dislikes are balanced
A
A +
B
-
+ +
C
B
A +
+
+
C
B
-
C
Communication network: formal and informal paths that define who speaks to whom most frequently 1 7
1 7
3
2
3
2 4
6 5 Attraction
4
6 5 Communication
Communication networks differ in degree of centralization
1
7 7
3 1
2
3
2 4
6
5 Centralized
4
6
5 De-centralized
Communication networks differ in degree of centralization
Network Structure and Performance
Different types of network structures are more effective than others, depending on the type of task being attempted • Information saturation: centralized networks are most efficient unless information overload • Influence and satisfaction: members who occupy more central positions are more influential and satisfied • Hierarchical networks and information flow: More information flows downward and unrealistically positive information flows upward
Application: SYMLOG
Observation and coding system developed by Robert Freed Bales
Trait (Direction) Sociable (UP)
General Behaviors
Individual and Organizational Values Outgoing, sociable, Popularity and social success, extroverted being liked and admired Persuasive (UPF) Persuasive, convincing, Active teamwork toward shows task leadership common goals, organizational unity Warm (UPB) Protects others, sympathetic, Protecting less able members, nurturant providing help when needed Equalitarian (P) Friendly, democratic, group- Equality, democratic oriented participation in decision making Cooperative (PF) Cooperative, reasonable, Responsible idealism, constructive collaborative work Task-oriented(F) Serious, logical, objective Conservative, established, “correct” ways of doing things Responsible (DPF) Modest, respectful, Dedication, faithfulness, loyalty dedicated to the organization Contented (DPB) Quietly contented, satisfied, Quiet contentment, taking it unconcerned easy Silent (D) Silent, passive, uninvolved Giving up personal needs and desires, passivity Example Items from SYMLOG Used with Permission. Copyright © 1983, 1985, 1998 SYMLOG Consulting Group.
Application: SYMLOG
Example SYMLOG
Norms
Roles
The Nature Of Social Norms
The Nature of Social Roles
Social Network Analysis
The Importance of Norms
Role Theories
Network Dynamics
Group Socialization
Application: SYMLOG
Role Stress
Relations
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