Module_4

APPEARANCE DISSATISFACTION and SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE

DISCUSSION: In what ways might vocational trainees from socially disadvantaged groups be negatively affected by their appearance? What might the consequences be for them?

GOALS OF THIS MODULE To enable trainers to be able to: • Recognise risk factors for appearance dissatisfaction in people from socially disadvantaged groups • Understand the processes of – Stereotyping – Impression formation

• Discuss this topic sensitively and offer helpful advice • Identify ways of supporting trainees and recommending appropriate resources

SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS • • • • •

People who are unemployed Immigrants; people from ethnic minorities People with physical disabilities People with poor mental health People from backgrounds with low socioeconomic status • People with low educational attainment

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF APPEARANCE DISSATISFACTION IN SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE?

Appearance dissatisfaction can be a cause, contributory factor and/or consequence of social disadvantage…..

RISK FACTORS FOR APPEARANCE DISSATISFACTION AMONGST SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED GROUPS INCLUDE 1. 2. 3. 4.

Cultural norms & beliefs Socio-economic circumstances Psychological vulnerability Responses of others

1. CULTURAL NORMS & BELIEFS ACTIVITY: How might cultural and/or religious beliefs impact on how trainees feel about or behave in relation to 1. Their own appearance 2. The appearance of others

Surface Culture 10% Doing

Thinking

Deep Culture 90% Feeling

Surface Culture 10% Easy to observe with vision, touch, taste, smell, sound, Art

Dance Food Dress/clothing Greetings Music

Doing

World view

Religious beliefs

Gender roles

Thinking

Authority

Ideas about leadership

Concepts of time Power Communication

Language

Personal space

Ideas about modesty

Decision-making models Concepts of justice Body language

Ways of life Laws and customs Institutions Methods and Techniques Rituals Language

Norms Roles Ideologies Beliefs Philosophy

Definition of sin

Friendship Designation of status based on positions (e.g.,age, gender, job) Pace of work

Feeling

Dating and courtship practices

Cooperation /competitiveness Notions of child-rearing

Deep Culture 90% Difficult to observe

Values Tastes Attitudes Desires Assumptions Expectations Myths

Potential Impacts of Cultural Norms & Beliefs • Cultural, religious and social beliefs relating to appearance can affect behavioural norms, assumptions, rules and relationships (Adamson and Doud Galli, 2009)

• May affect choices made re appearance & clothing – Appearance ideals may differ from those in their ‘host’ country

• May affect their judgements of them by others on the basis of their appearance, e.g, in relation to – Socially acceptable codes of dress in host country or in a new social group – Beliefs about the causes of disfigurement

Examples: Cultural Differences • Immersion in a culture with a significant emphasis on appearance may be problematic for some migrants…. – Although the thin ideal is present in various cultures and is commonly adopted by adolescent girls, it is not a universal phenomenon – For example, in cultures based on the Confucian value of internal goodness (such as China), less importance may be placed on external beauty (Chiu and Babcok, 2002).

Examples: Beliefs Attributed to Skin Colour Skin colour can be significant marker of social and cultural distinction between and within ethnic groups • In Japan, some associate lighter skin with greater femininity & moral virtue • In Korea & the Indian sub-continent, some associate lighter skin with higher social status, privilege & respect • In China, a lighter skin is a signifier of health

Example: Values Attributed to Ethnic Physical Characteristics • For some, ethnic physical characteristics can be a source of identity and pride….but • In many resource-rich countries, cultural, social and economic perceptions of appearance have led many to undergo cosmetic surgery to diminish or eradicate ethnic origins that mark them as different from the majority population: – For Jewish people: noses – For South East Asians: eyes – For Africans: noses and lips

Example: Beliefs re Disfigurement Religious beliefs: • Karma - the belief that one’s actions have consequences requiring atonement – a person ‘deserves’ or is responsible for acquiring a disfigurement, or – a mother’s immoral or deviant actions from the past or present have resulted in her bearing a child with a visible difference

Examples: Religious & Cultural Beliefs • Asian sub-continent: The occurrence of a visible difference is the will of the creator – any such characteristic should be accepted & ‘borne’ (Hughes et al, 2009) • Iran: Those who have sustained a burn injury are assumed to be infertile

Disfigurement: Cultural Myths In different cultures, a cleft lip is thought to have been caused by – engagement in sexual activity during pregnancy – seeing a rabbit when pregnant (hare lip) – becoming pregnant during a lunar eclipse – having been insensitive (in a current or former life) to those that have a visible difference

Disfigurement: Gendered Beliefs • Some cultures have a greater tolerance towards males with disfiguring conditions, especially if they are capable of earning a living • “The disfigured female in the family is terribly embarrassing” (female elder of the Bangladeshi community living in the UK; Hughes et al, 2009). • The loss of reproductive organs such as the breast (for example, through cancer) is seen in some societies as destroying a woman’s identity and femininity (Ashing-Giwa et al, 2006).

2. SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES • Social deprivation/lower income may result in – Greater risk of obesity – Greater risk of acquiring a disfigurement • Burns • Trauma • Physical disability

– Inability to match appearance ideals • Clothing

All of these may lead to stigmatisation and/or shame….

Stigma and/or Shame • For example, obesity, physical signs of eating disorders, visible differences (scars, congenital anomalies), physical manifestations of disease or ill health (leprosy), or of a physical disability or social disability,

SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES • Appearance may contribute to lower educational attainment and /or unemployment, e.g. – Poorer concentration; failure to engage in group discussions (see Module xx) – Inappropriate choice of clothing & self presentation in interviews – Preoccupation with self and high levels of self consciousness leading to poor interview performance

For example: Education • Educational attainment is becoming increasingly important, relative to other factors, in shaping people’s life chances (OECD, 2005; 2007, 2010).

Education and earnings

EMPLOYMENT STATUS

Effect of job insecurity and unemployment on health.

Taylor S Br Med Bull 2009;bmb.ldp024 © The Author 2009. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved

• Social and economic inequality and exclusion are both a cause and a consequence of mental health problems & • Poor Quality of Life

Rogers A and Pilgrim D (2003) Mental Health and Inequality. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Social Exclusion Unit (2004) Mental Health and Social Exclusion. London: Office of the Deputy Prime Minister.

3. PSYCHOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY & APPEARANCE DISSATISFACTION • Appearance dissatisfaction is associated with – Low self-esteem – Low self-confidence – Negative self evaluations – Social anxiety & general anxiety

APPEARANCE ISSUES CAN INCREASE PSYCHOLOGICAL VULNERABILITY & SOCIAL DISADVANTAGE By contributing to • Negative self-perceptions • Fragile self-concept and sense of self-worth • Issues of identity • Sub-optimal social functioning because of – A lack of social skills (due to self consciousness) – Social anxiety

Self-concept & self-worth • A resilient, balanced self-concept derives a sense of worth from a variety of domains, including for example, performance at school or at work, friendships, sporting ability and leisure activities, as well as appearance • If one component is negatively affected (for example, if another person makes a negative appearance-related comment), then other ‘segments’ can still provide a sense of selfworth…

Well Balanced Self-Concept

Other Sports

Appearance

Fun to be with

Academic Good social skills

Vulnerable Self-Concept • As the result of pressures from the media, fashion and beauty industries, increasing numbers of people are defining themselves (self concept) and evaluating themselves primarily in relation to their appearance (self worth). • This increases their vulnerability to low selfworth, as they have little to fall back on

Vulnerable Self-Concept

Other

Appearance

Identity & Appearance • Identity is derived in part from appearance – appearance norms relate to shared customs, practices and cultural values that are based on nationality and ancestry, ethnicity & religion • People experience pressure to conform to socially defined norms of appearance to facilitate group membership or convey status

4. RESPONSES OF OTHERS These can include a) Stereotyping on the basis of appearance – By professionals – By peers – By potential employers

b) Appearance talk amongst peers; family c) Social Relationships (eg friendship choices) determined on the basis of appearance

a) Stereotyping • Humans have an innate tendency to categorise others on the basis of external characteristics • Stereotypic judgements are made on the basis of which characteristics are socially valued, desired & acceptable • These judgements are influenced by cultural and religious beliefs and by social norms

Where do Stereotypes Come From?

Family Friends Media

Family • Through the modelling of attitudes and behaviours • Through comments made about appearance • Influencing eating and exercise patterns

Friends • • • •

Peer pressure to conform to group norms Friendship choices ‘engaging in appearance-talk’ Teasing; bullying

Bullying • Can occur across the lifespan – In educational settings, reports state that up to 20 – 25% experience bullying. – 21% say that bullying is an issue where they work (Trades Union Congress, 2008).

• Bullying is commonly based on the following characteristics – – – – –

Physical appearance Disability Sexual orientation Intellect Socio-economic background – Cultural or religious background

Bullying • Studies show that students with visible and non-visible disabilities are subject to more bullying than non-disabled peers (Carter and Spencer, 2006). • Research has shown that students who are in the ethnic minority in a school are more likely to be bullied than students who are in the ethnic majority (Graham, 2006). Ethnicity is often inferred on the basis of appearance.

Media • Through the transmission of appearance ideals in TV, magazines, cinema, advertising and the internet • Articles identifying ‘faults’ in appearance • Advertisements for products to correct these ‘faults’ • Advertisements and articles extolling the benefits of cosmetic surgery The villain in Disney’s 2013 movie “Lone Ranger” is portrayed with a cleft lip

Stereotyping on the Basis of Appearance • Girls associate thinness with being happier, healthier, better looking, and more successful with boys (Wertheim et al., 2009) • Negative stereotypes/stigma are associated with a visible disfigurement • This stereotyping can result in stigmatisation and can devalue the whole person BUT……OUR INITIAL STEREOTYPES (often based on appearance) ARE FREQUENTLY WRONG!

Influencing first impressions (What can we do when we say ‘hello’?) • Looks do count in first impressions….but other factors come into play after the first 10-15 seconds • Other factors influence impressions too, including – Smiling – Eye contact – Social skills

DISCUSSION • What kinds of stereotypic judgements might be made about trainees from socially disadvantaged groups • By whom? • What might the impacts of these stereotypic judgements be? • How might the trainers and trainees influence these judgements 1. At the time the judgements are made? 2. Afterwards?

b) Appearance Talk & Appearance Comparisons • ‘Appearance Talk’ refers to comments and conversations about a person’s own appearance, or the appearance of others. These comments are usually disparaging (e.g. “I look so awful”; “I am so fat”; My skin looks terrible’’) • Appearance ‘comparisons’ are the process of comparing (usually negatively) one’s own appearance or the appearance of others to an ideal (eg models in the media) or a specific ‘target’ (such as a celebrity) Both processes are common amongst older adolescents and young adults. Both contribute to body dissatisfaction

ACTIVITY • In the context of vocational guidance or vocational training, when might ‘appearance talk’ take place? • Are you aware of these taking place amongst your colleagues and/or students? • What might be done to discourage such conversations ?

HINTS & TIPS TO REDUCE APPEARANCE TALK • Change/divert the conversation to another topic • Focus on a person’s qualities (eg their personality) rather than their appearance – S/he is friendly; generous; has a great sense of humour

• Avoid value judgements (eg “beautiful”; “looks amazing”) and focus on facts instead – Taller; shorter

• Engage in ‘health talk’ not ‘appearance talk’ – Encourage students to exercise to improve fitness & function – not to lose weight

HINTS & TIPS ABOUT APPEARANCE COMPARISONS • Comparisons are difficult to avoid altogether – it’s something we all do…..but • Encourage your trainees to choose realistic targets for their comparisons, eg – People of their own age & occupation – Their peers, rather than celebrities

• Apply this principle to yourself too!

c) Social relationships • Research has established that children and adolescents prefer attractive peers as playmates, friends, and even as partners for an academic project (e.g., Boyatzis, Baloff, & Durieux, 1998) • Appearance may affect friendship choices, and choices about whom to work with in class • Social contact is a good way of breaking down stereotypes – so if you think this may be happening, ensure those ‘at risk’ are included in work groups

POTENTIAL IMPACTS OF APPEARANCE, STEREOTYPES & APPEARANCE DISSATISFACTION

• • • •

Social exclusion on the basis of appearance Reduced likelihood of employment Risks to wellbeing Appearance dissatisfaction in trainees &/or appearance preferences made by their peers (or trainers) may compound existing inequalities/difficulties/challenges

ADDRESSING APPEARANCE-RELATED CHALLENGES • Promote discussion about appearance-related norms of the ‘host’ countries of migrants • Educate trainees about the processes of stereotyping & forming first impressions and how to influence these • Encourage a reduction in appearance talk • Encourage appropriate targets for appearance comparisons • Promote social inclusion in work groups

SUMMARY • Cultural & religious beliefs and social norms can influence self-perceptions and the responses of others to a person’s appearance • Appearance plays a part in the responses of others (e.g. in the form of stereotyping and forming impressions • Appearance issues may compound the impacts of social disadvantage

Appearance & Social Disadvantage

Failing school

Mental Health

Unemployment

SUMMARY • Trainers and counsellors can optimise the chances of positive outcomes by – Improving understanding about the values, beliefs and norms of different cultures and ethnicities in relation to appearance and/or disfigurement – Increasing awareness amongst trainees and colleagues about the processes of stereotyping and forming impressions – Tackling appearance talk – Encouraging appropriate appearance comparisons