Week 9

Sexuality & Gender

THE NATURE OF FEMALE AND MALENESS •

Our satisfaction with our own body is very crucial. A transsexual person says he wishes he did not have a body at all after having undergone the operation. • Who is he who is she sometimes becomes very confusing especially in the case of transsexualism. Gender Differences • Gender is a social identity covered by a set of social roles based on this identity. In very general terms: • She refers to anatomical and physiological differences that define male and female bodies. • Gender by contrast concerns the psychological, social and cultural differences between males and females which is socially constructed notions of masculinity and femininity. • Gender is not necessarily a direct product of individual’s biological sex. • Many differences between sex and gender is a fundamental one, since many differences in males and females are not biological in origin.

Natural Differences • Our behaviour is coming from our biology or gender? And in which extend? • Do our natural factors responsible for gender inequalities? For example, hunting men figure cross culturally is evidence of men’s physical strength and aggression. If it is so there is a difference between cultures regarding ‘gentle woman’ or ‘aggressive man’.

Gender Socialization • Learning social roles with the help of social organizations like the family or the media. • Gender roles are biologically determined but socially constructed. Hence gender equalities are the results of different man and women’s socialization. • Gaining gender roles are supported by positive or negative sanctions. • Functionalist approach stressed that socializing agencies contribute to the maintenance of social order. • The critic toward this interpretation says that socialization theories ignore the social expectations surrounding sex roles. For example they may limit individual preferences.

The Social construction of Gender and Sex • Recently sociologists have been discussing that both sex and gender are culturally constructed. Not only gender but also human body itself is subject to social forces as we consider about piercing, dieting, sex change operation etc... • The perspective that accepts there is a biological basis of gender thinks that sex provides a social framework for gender roles. Contrary to this argument, second group sees both sex and gender to be socially constructed. Sex differences are used to shape those differences socially.

Perspective on Gender Inequality • Functionalists Division of labour between men and women is biologically based and universal. Women are attached to domestic and family responsibilities while men to outdoor duties. Nuclear family in industrial societies is the key agency of socialization. Women are defined with their expressive roles, men are instrumental roles and these roles are complementary (T. Parsons). Mother is crucial for child’s socialization. A child separated from the mother may have social and psychological difficulties in his/her adulthood. Even a mother substitute should be a woman (J. Bowlb).

Perspective on Gender Inequality Liberal Feminism • Women’s subordination is not a part of social system. Thus equal opportunities and access for women are needed for gender equality. Radical Feminism • They offered a new concept, patriarchy which is historical systematic cross cultural domination of females by males. • Men control women biological reproduction and labour. • The family contains variety of disadvantages for women. • They debate on sexual harassment, rape, pornography, violence against women, social pressure of western beauty over women. • For media studies the most important contribution of radical feminists is the argument of women’s objectification through the media. Black Feminism • Women’s struggle is not only the struggle of white middle class women. • Other feminist did not consider ethnic women’s double burden, being woman and ethnic. • In black feminism, family represents a main point of solidarity against racism. • Gender equality without taking into consideration black women cannot be reached.

Patriarchy • The dominance of men over women. All known societies are patriarchal, although there are variations in the degree and nature of the power men exercise, as compared with women.

Sylivia Walby: Theorising Patriarchy • There is no unchanging and uniform oppression over women in the world. Patriarchy changes according to other conditions and works harmoniously with other forms of oppression like capitalism. Walby describes six patriarchal structures: -in production relation -in paid work -in state -in male violence -in sexuality -in cultural institutions

Gender Identity Freud Theory of Gender Development Presence and absence of penis are symbolically referring masculinity and femininity. The boy unconsciously generates hostile feelings to his father and represses his erotic feelings towards his mother. The boy identifies himself with his father by recognizing his authority and his own male identity. Finally the boy gives up his love for his mother out of unconscious fear of castration by his father. The girls devalues her mother since they both unconsciously suffering from lack of penis. Finally the girl gives up and identifies with her mother and takes over her submissive attitudes. Both boys and girls learn to repress their erotic feeling between age of 5 and puberty (latency period). During this period same-sex- peer-group becomes very important for children. Critics by feminists and other authors (by Mitchell 1973’ Coward 1984) -Freud defines sexual identity with genital awareness. -Theory sees that penis is superior to vagina. -There are many culture in which mother is main figure in disciplining. -Gender roles learning begins earlier instead of after age of 5.

Gender Identity Chodorow’s Theory of Gender Development Mother is more dominant figure in gaining gender identity. Children have to break the attachment to their mothers to get a separate sense of self. Broken up process experience by boys and girls differently. Boys’ breaking up is sharp while girls still has close relations with her mother. Girls dependency changes in time first, her mother and later another man. This experience make woman more sensitive and emotional. Boys are less skilled in close relation less able to understand their own and the other’s feelings. Reversing Freud’s assumption Chodorow states that the loss is what the boy losses, which close attachment to the mother. While men are afraid of close relation by thinking that their male identity is endangered, women have the same fear in the absence of close relation. Men become more manipulative and women become more expressive. Critics (by Sayers) Women’s struggle to be independent is ignored in her explanation. Women can express their aggression and assertiveness in direct ways and in certain contexts. The family in which boys and girls gain their gender identities is white, Western and nuclear family.

Femininities Masculinities and Gender Relation Gender and Power by R. W. Connell • Masculinities cannot be understood separate from femininities, • Gender relations organized around men’s dominance are seen in daily practices, collective social arrangements. • Gender relations are constituted in three realms of society: Labour (gender division of labor), power (authority in institutions like family, state) and cathexis (emotional). • Gender regime is the configuration of gender relations within a particular setting, such as school, a family or a neighborhood.

Gender Hierarchy by Connell • There are different expressions of femininity and masculinity. • Ideal types of masculinities is hegemonic masculinity which is associated to heterosexuality, marriage, authority, paid work, physical and emotional toughness. • Emphasized femininity is complementary to hegemonic masculinity, serving interests and desires of men.

Transforming Masculinities Gender relations are open to change and challenge. Crisis in Masculinity Crisis of institutionalization: Weak men power in institutions and men’s power is underminded. Crisis of Sexuality: Heterosexuality is not dominant. Crisis in Interest formation: women friendly regulations, anti-sexist attitudes.

The Betrayal of the Modern Men • Men’s gender roles in modern American society loss importance in the job market, family, relationships. • They are not breadwinner any more. • There is no traditional loyalty and commitments. • No self-worth and usefulness emotionally among men.

Population Total (millions)

44.5

56.1

60.6

65.3

425.8

474.3

466.3

647.0

Female population (% of total)

49.6

49.3

49.4

49.5

52.4

51.8

50.1

50.2

Male

59

64

66

67

63

64

62

67

Female

64

68

71

72

72

74

68

73

Male

17.1

10.8

8.3

6.5

3.3

1.7

14.2

8.4

Female

46.0

33.5

28.0

23.5

7.7

4.7

21.7

11.9

Total labor force (millions)

19

24

28

31

214

238

184

288

Female labor force (% of total)

36

35

36

38

47

46

33

37

10.9

8.0

6.9

8.3

..

11.1

..

9

23

8.5

6.5

6.6

..

11.1

..

8.9

Life expectancy at birth (years)

Adult illiteracy rate (% of people aged 15+)

LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION

Unemployment Total (% of total labor force) Female (% of female labor force) EDUCATION ACCESS AND ATTAINMENT

Net primary enrollment rate (% of age group) Male

..

..

98

104

..

..

..

98

Female

..

..

94

96

..

..

..

96

Progression to grade 5 (% of cohort) Male

..

98

93

..

..

..

..

..

Female

..

97

96

..

..

..

..

..

Primary completion rates Male

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

Female

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

..

4.3

2.9

1.9

1.2

1.2

0.5

7.6

4.4

20.2

11.7

8.4

6.0

4.0

1.7

10.2

4.3

Youth illiteracy Rate (% of people aged 15-24) Male Female

Media Portrayals by J. Rutherford Two idealized man images in the media 1. Retribute men: traditional masculinity. 2. New men: sensitive, caring, portrayed as object to female gaze.

Gender Trends • • • • • • • • • • •

•

The Turkey NHDR maps show clearly that high male human development is present in about two thirds of the country, largely in the east, centre, south-west and south of the country, while high female human development is concentrated in the more urbanized provinces of Ankara, Istanbul/Kocaeli and Izmir, where they have almost the same HDI status as men. In the country as a whole, in statistical terms, women have lower HDI values than men (0.648 for women and 0.824 for men). The malefemale HDI is largest in the province of Diyarbakir, in the east of the country. Of the three components of HDI, women are clearly disadvantaged with respect to two of them, namely per capita income and educational attainment, while enjoying a biological advantage in the third (life expectancy). Gender disparities are reviewed in terms of politics, employment, health and education. Turkey’s ranking in terms of the Gender Development Index was 45th out of 130 countries in 1995, and 98th out of 116 for the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM). With respect to women in public life and politics, women were given the suffrage in 1933, and in the following national elections obtained 18 seats in the Legislative Assembly or 4.5% of the total. In remarkable contrast, and despite having a woman as Prime Minister, in1996, there were only 13 women parliamentarians, holding only 2.4% of the seats. (in Norway it is 39.4%). Women have fared even worse in local elections, having won only 1% of seats in the 1994 municipal elections, and less than 0.5% of positions as mayors. The main issues with regard to women and employment relate to unequal job opportunities and unequal pay, whereby on average women’s non-agricultural wage is 84.5% of men’s. Women are well represented in professional occupations, with 29% of all lawyers, 32% of all university academic posts, 39% of architects (13% in US), 39% of dentists (9% in US), and 35% of all public employees. In the medical profession, 70% of all graduating physicians in 1994/95 were women. This picture is very different at lower social levels, whereby in 1990, only 17% of the urban work force were women, including 32% of clerical and related workers (compared with over 75% in the US and Europe). With regard to women’s health, fertility and family, Turkey still lags far behind the industrialized world in these areas. The total fertility rate has declined significantly in recent decades from 5.7 in 1965 to 3.6 in 1989 and 2.7 in 1993, indicating marked progress since the introduction of the first Family planning Act in 1965. The transition from high to low fertility in Turkey is considered to be unique in the Middle East, but once again there is much variation among regions and social groups. The total fertility rate for urban centres is 2.4 and 3.1 in rural areas. The main contributory factor to declining fertility has been and to education and an increase in a women’s marriage age, for instance from 17.6 years in 1983 too 22 in 1990. Finally, education is considered to be a major factor underlying gender disparities in Turkey. While there is still a gap in literacy between males (91.3%) and females (76.1%), (compared with 86.4% and 68% respectively in 1985), the gap has been narrowing fast.

Discussions • Do women and men have equal access to valued resources? Are women’s and men’s roles valued similarly?